研究生英语学术
论文写作
English Academic Writing
for Graduate Students
主编：金 晶 郑玉琪
编者：蔡旭东 李 黎 吴 婷
孙书兰 陈峥嵘 凌建辉
清华大学出版社
Tsinghua University Press
内 容 简 介
本教材以任务型教学为编写原则与核心理念，将论文写作步骤与语言技能训练融为一体，使学术论文写作的知识与实训紧密结合，兼顾各学科论文写作的特色与要求，并提供大量实例，有针对性地设计大量课堂练习，增加教学实效。本教材内容涵盖学术英语写作的各个组成部分，每个单元均设计了与该单元主题相关的思考题、论文实例、语言点、写作技能与写作实践等环节。学生在进行各单元的写作实践后即可完成一篇完整的学术研究论文。本教材另配有相关练习的答案详解及电子课件，读者可登录ftp://ftp.tup.tsinghua.edu.cn/下载使用。
本教材适用于研究生及高年级本科生，也可用作提高英语学术论文写作水平的辅导教材。
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研究生英语学术论文写作 / 金晶，郑玉琪主编. — 北京：清华大学出版社，2020.3
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近年来，国际学术交流日益频繁，高层次国际化人才的培养已成为我国高等教育事业
发展的重点。社会需求和学习者的学术发展对高校研究生公共英语教学提出了更严峻的挑
战。研究生英语教学的培养目标首先应考虑国际化和国际交流背景下研究生应具备的学术
英语应用能力，使其能有效从事本专业学术研究和交流，尤其是要提高其学术英语写作
能力，以帮助其在国际学术期刊上发表论文或在国际学术会议及论坛上报告科学研究成果。
学术英语写作能力是学术能力的基本组成部分，包括选题能力、文献检索和阅读能力、
语篇构建能力、获取有效信息的能力、语言表达能力等诸多方面。本教材以提高研究生学
术英语写作能力为目标，以任务型教学为编写原则和核心理念，将论文写作步骤与语言技
能训练融为一体，使知识讲解与写作实训紧密结合，以学习成果为导向，将教学过程设计
为任务型项目，兼顾文理科论文写作的特色与要求，提供了丰富的实例兼作阅读样本和写
作模板，有针对性地设计了大量课堂练习，提高课堂教学内容与活动的可操作性，增强教
学实效，让学生在过程中学会写作。学生在完成每一单元的学习后，不仅能掌握必要的写
作知识，而且可以通过模仿练习和实战写作，学会如何写好论文的相关部分。完成全书的
学习之后，学生可了解英语学术论文写作的全过程以及学术写作各个环节的写作技能，为
完成自己的英语学术论文打下坚实的基础并做好充分的准备。
本教材共分 8 个单元，内容涵盖英语学术论文写作的各个组成部分：学术英语语言特
点、开题报告、文献综述、研究方法、数据分析与讨论、研究结论、摘要与参考文献以及
致谢与投稿。每个单元均设计了与该单元主题相关的思考题、论文实例、语言点、写作技
能和写作实践等环节。教师可用 4 个课时完成一个单元的教学和部分写作练习，学完本教
材约需 32 个课内课时，与论文相关的写作实践及文献查阅和分析需要大量的课外时间才能
完成。
本教材的策划、构思与编写得到了东南大学研究生院和外国语学院的大力支持和关心，
参编者均为研究生教学部承担一线教学任务的教师。东南大学自 2012 年开始进行研究生公
共英语教学改革，学术英语写作课程是其中的一项重要内容。本教材基于该校多年来的教
学实践与教改经验编写而成，其相关教学模式与课程改革曾获得江苏省教育厅“研究生教
育改革成果二等奖”。
由于编者水平有限，教材中的疏漏之处在所难免，恳请同行和使用者不吝赐教。
编者
2019 年12 月
于东南大学

Academic Writing Style....................................1Warm-up...................................................................................2Sample Reading........................................................................2
What Are the Key Characteristics of Academic Writing?...................2Language Focus........................................................................7
A. Word Choice........................................................................................7
B. Formal Grammar and Style...............................................................9
C. Linking Words and Flow...................................................................11Academic Writing Skills........................................................12
A. Recognizing Different Styles............................................................12
B. Choosing Appropriate Styles............................................................13
Research Proposal...........................................17Warm-up.................................................................................18Sample Reading......................................................................18
Writing a Research Proposal.................................................................18Language Focus......................................................................27
A. Personal Pronouns............................................................................27
B. Nominalization.................................................................................30Academic Writing Skills........................................................33
A. Selecting a Topic.................................................................................33
B. Formulating the Focus.....................................................................34
C. Establishing a Working Title............................................................35
I
II
III
IV
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IV
C
ontents
1
UNIT
2
UNIT
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
Introduction & Literature Review..................37
Warm-up.................................................................................38
A. Introduction...................................................................................... 38
B. Literature Review.............................................................................. 38
Sample Reading...................................................................... 39
Sample 1: The Application of Swales’ Model in Writing a
Research Article Introduction......................................................... 39
Sample 2: Poverty and Environmental Degradation:
A Review and Analysis of the Nexus...............................................40
Language Focus...................................................................... 43
A. Tenses in Citation..............................................................................43
B. Citing Verbs....................................................................................... 44
Academic Writing Skills........................................................ 47
A. Citing Previous Research..................................................................47
B. Relating Literature to Your Research.............................................. 48
C. Avoiding Plagiarism.........................................................................50
D. Writing a Literature Review.............................................................53
Methodology Description...............................55
Warm-up................................................................................. 56
Sample Reading...................................................................... 57
Parental Phenol Exposure and Spontaneous Abortion in Chinese
Population Residing in the Lower Reach of the Yangtze River.......57
Language Focus...................................................................... 59
A. The Passive Voice............................................................................... 59
B. Sequential Markers............................................................................63
I
II
III
IV
I
II
III
UNIT 3
UNIT 4
v
Contents
Academic Writing Skills........................................................64
A. Identifying Information Elements................................................. 64
B. Ordering Methodology Elements................................................... 66
C. Gathering Information for a Method Section............................... 67
D. Describing Methodology................................................................. 69
E. Designing a Questionnaire..............................................................70
Results & Discussion.......................................73
Warm-up................................................................................. 74
Sample Reading...................................................................... 74
The Role of Language for Thinking and Task Selection
in EFL Learners’ Oral Collocational Production............................74
Language Focus...................................................................... 81
A. Comparison and Contrast................................................................81
B. Cause and Effect............................................................................... 84
Academic Writing Skills........................................................85
A. Describing the Graphic Information.............................................. 85
B. Strengthening or Weakening a Claim............................................88
C. Outlining the Results and Discussion Section...............................91
Research Conclusion.......................................95
Warm-up.................................................................................96
Sample Reading......................................................................96
Parental Phenol Exposure and Spontaneous Abortion in Chinese
Population Residing in the Lower Reach of Yangtze River......... 96
Language Focus......................................................................99
A. Summarizing.................................................................................... 99
B. Paraphrasing................................................................................... 102
IV
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III
IV
I
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UNIT 5
UNIT 6
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Academic Writing Skills...................................................... 104
A. Using Sentence Patterns................................................................ 104
B. Restating the Research Objective...................................................105
C. Writing a Conclusion Section........................................................107
Abstract & Documentation............................111
Warm-up................................................................................112
Sample Reading.....................................................................112
The Self-Promotion of Academic Textbooks in the Preface
Section: A Genre Analysis............................................................... 112
Language Focus.....................................................................115
Verbs, Sentence Patterns, and Verb Tenses....................................... 115
Academic Writing Skills.......................................................119
A. Preparing for Writing an Abstract................................................. 119
B. Outlining an Abstract..................................................................... 120
C. Drafting an Abstract Together with Keywords........................... 128
D. Making a Reference List.................................................................129
Acknowledgements & Submission............... 133
Warm-up............................................................................... 134
Sample Reading.................................................................... 134
Sample 1: Acknowledgements.............................................................134
Sample 2: Submission Cover Letter................................................... 135
Language Focus.....................................................................137
Politeness............................................................................................... 137
Academic Writing Skills...................................................... 140
A. Writing a Submission Cover Letter.............................................. 140
B. Writing a Reply to the Decision Letter......................................... 140
IV
I
II
III
IV
I
II
III
IV
UNIT 7
UNIT 8
vii
Contents
Appendix2 A Suggested Schedule for a Short-Term Research......155
Appendix3 Paper Processing Cycle.............................................. 157
Appendix 1 A Sample Proposal...................................................... 143

Academic Writing Style
? To understand the style and features
of academic discourse;
? To distinguish between the academic
style and the personal style of writing;
? To recognize various levels of
formality;
? To use appropriate words and
sentences in academic writing.
1 UNIT
Learning Objectives
2
English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
I Warm-up
As a graduate student, you will face a lot of writing tasks as you work toward the chosen
degree. Naturally, these tasks vary from one discipline to another. They are, however, similar
in one respect—they all need to be completed “academically”. What is the academic style?
This is a question that students frequently ask. The English language used in writing academic
papers differs from that in common writing in many aspects.
To know more about academic writing, think about the following questions first:
? How is academic writing different from other forms of writing?
? What is your purpose of initiating an academic research?
? What are the key characteristics of academic writing?
II Sample Reading
What Are the Key Characteristics of Academic Writing?
Compare and contrast the following two pieces of writing.
The first example is an e-mail written by a student, and the second is an essay extract on
the same topic.
■ Dear Professor,
Please find below my answers to your questions.
I think academic English and everyday English are different because they have
very different goals. Lectures and seminars need a different approach from spoken
English. And, of course, academic essay writing isn’t the same as standard writing.
I think there are four main areas where I can see big differences between standard
writing and academic writing. They are as follows:
? You should not be subjective;
? You should be more complex;
? You should have more structures;
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UNIT1 Academic Writing Style
? You should use the academic style and system.
Best wishes,
Sophia
■ “Academic English” is differentiated from “general English” in its focus on “those
communication skills in English which are required for study purposes in formal
education systems” (Jordan, 1997: 1). Within these systems, there are three main
areas of focus: the lecture, the seminar and the essay, each of which has a specific
set of subskills which are required for successful performance. It is essays where the
most significant distinction between academic English and general English is made.
Generally speaking, there are four main areas where differences between standard
writing and academic writing can be observed: the inherent objectivity of academic
writing, its complexity, its formality of structure and its adoption of academic style.
It is almost impossible to define good academic writing exactly. However, it is certainly
possible to identify some key characteristics. The ones listed below are four of the most
important features.
Academic writing:
? is more objective;
? is more complex;
? has a more formal structure;
? uses more referencing.
??
Academic Writing Is More Objective.
Phrases such as “I think” “I believe” and “in my opinion” should not be used in academic
writing. Academics are not looking for what you think or believe—they want to see what you
can show, demonstrate and prove through evidence. For example:
■ Standard writing: I think there are four main areas where I can see big differences
between standard writing and academic writing.
■ Academic writing: Generally speaking, there are four main areas where differences
between standard writing and academic writing can be observed.
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
Three specific strategies for achieving objectivity are outlined below:
? Strategy 1: Hedging language increases the “distance” between the writer and the
text, thereby creating more objectivity.
? Strategy 2: Empty introductory phrases provide a platform for objective statements.
? Strategy 3: The passive voice removes the need for a subject in the sentence.
??
Academic Writing Is More Complex.
As a general principle, academic writing is more complex than other forms of writing.
This is because academic writing often discusses difficult, challenging ideas which can only
be expressed with particular grammar and language. This complexity may be seen in the
following three aspects.
Formality of Language
Academic language is more formal than the language used in other forms of writing. For
example:
■ Standard writing: big differences
■ Academic writing: the most significant distinction
Grammatical Structures
Some grammatical forms appear more frequently in academic writing than in other forms
of writing, like the passive voice, noun phrases and relative clauses. For example:
■ Academic writing: a specific set of subskills which are required for successful performance
Density of Language
In the two writing samples on Pages 2–3, the average number of letters per word of
the e-mail is 4.8, whereas it is 5.4 for the sample of academic writing. This density can
be achieved through a greater use of content words (such as verbs and nouns) rather than
structure words (such as prepositions and conjunctions). In the example below, the adjective
form found in general writing is substituted with a verb form in academic writing.
■ Standard writing: Academic English and everyday English are different...
■ Academic writing: “Academic English” is differentiated from “general English”...
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UNIT1 Academic Writing Style
??
Academic Writing Has a More Formal Structure.
All forms of writing have a certain type of structure. The structure of academic writing
is more formal than that of other forms of writing. The following characteristics can be
observed:
? The text as a whole has a specific, formalized structure—the introduction, main body
and conclusion.
? The text must have cohesion and coherence—it must link together clearly so that it is
possible to follow the writer’s argument.
? Paragraphs should be roughly of the same length throughout, so there is a good
overall balance.
? Paragraphs often follow a similar structure—topic sentence, outline of argument,
supporting evidence, short conclusion and transition to the next paragraph.
??
Academic Writing Uses More Referencing.
Building on the ideas of other people is one of the central features of academic writing.
In order to show where these ideas come from (and to avoid plagiarism), a reference system is
used. For example:
■ Standard writing: I think academic English and everyday English are different because
they have very different goals.
■ Academic writing: “Academic English” is differentiated from “general English” in its
focus on “those communication skills in English which are required for study purposes
in formal education systems” (Jordan, 1971:1).
(Adapted from C. Sowton. 2012. 50 Steps to Improving Your Academic Writing. Reading:
Garnet Publishing.)
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
??Tasks
Summarize the key characteristics of academic writing and discuss with a
partner about why these features prevail in academic writing.
Key Academic Writing Features Reasons Behind
Objectivity
Complexity
Formal structure
Referencing
Match the following writing strategies with the possible features in the box.
a. objectivity b. complexity c. formal structure d. referencing
1) a reference system
2) empty introductory phrases
3) a greater use of content words
4) the passive voice
5) cohesion and coherence
6) relative clauses
7) hedging language
8) same-length paragraphs
9) noun phrases
1
2
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UNIT1 Academic Writing Style
Which of the italicized words in each sentence would be more suitable for an
academic paper? Write down the correct answers.
1) The government has made good/considerable progress in solving environmental
problems.
2) We got/obtained encouraging results.
3) The results of a lot of/numerous different projects have been pretty good/encouraging.
4) A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen/consequences if the process is
automated.
5) The future of Federal funding is up in the air/uncertain.
III Language Focus
A. Word Choice
The English language often has two or more choices to express an action or occurrence.
The choice is often between a phrasal verb and a single verb. Often in lectures and other
instances of everyday spoken English, the phrasal verb is used; however, for written academic
English, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible. This is one of the most
dramatic shifts from informal style to formal style. Academic voice can be well expressed by
choosing words. A distinctive feature of academic writing is choosing the more formal ones
when selecting a verb, a noun, or other parts of speech. For example:
■ Less formal style: Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault.
■ Academic style: Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault.
3
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
??Tasks
Match the informal expressions in the first column with the formal verbs in the
second column. Then write the noun forms of these formal verbs in the third
column. The first one is given as an example.
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
1) try to find out
2) look at carefully
3) go up and down
4) set up
5) get rid of
6) cut down
7) help out
8) go up
9) look into
10) make sure something is true
verify ( 10 )
examine ( )
establish ( )
increase ( )
investigate ( )
assist ( )
discover ( )
eliminate ( )
reduce ( )
fluctuate ( )
verification
Rewrite the following sentences to make them more formal by substituting the
italicized phrase with a single verb.
1) The implementation of computer-integrated-manufacturing (CIM) has brought about
some serious problems.
2) The process should be done over until the desired results are achieved.
3) Plans are being made to come up with a database containing detailed environmental
information for the region.
1
2
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UNIT1 Academic Writing Style
4) Subtle changes in the earth’s crust were picked up by these new devices.
5) Proposals to construct new nuclear reactors have met with great resistance from
environmentalists.
B. Formal Grammar and Style
Sentence structures in academic writing are more complex than in other forms of
writing in that academic writing often discusses difficult, challenging ideas which can only
be expressed with particular grammar and language. But do not mistake “complex” for
“complicated”. Academic writing should not be complicated. It should be relatively easy to
follow, and be written in a clear, direct way.
The following are some recommendations for maintaining a formal academic writing style.
First, avoid contractions. For example:
■ Export figures won’t improve until the economy is stronger. (×)
■ Export figures will not improve until the economy is stronger. (√)
Second, use the more appropriate formal negative forms. For example:
■ The analysis didn’t yield any new results. (×)
■■ The analysis yielded no new results. (√)
■■ The government didn’t allocate much funding for the program. (×)
■■ The government allocated little funding for the program. (√)
■■ This problem doesn’t have many viable solutions. (×)
■ This problem has few viable solutions. (√)
Third, limit the use of “run on” expressions, such as “and so forth” and “etc.”. For example:
■ These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc. (×)
■ These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and other electronic devices. (√)
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
Fourth, avoid addressing the reader as “you”. For example:
■ You can see the results in Table 1. (×)
■ The results can be seen in Table 1. (√)
Last but not least, limit the use of direct questions. For example:
■ What can be done to lower costs? (×)
■ We now need to consider what can be done to lower costs./We now need to consider
how costs may be lowered. (√)
??Task
Rewrite the following sentences to make them more formal.
1) If you fail the exam, you can’t enter the university.
2) So, why did the bridge collapse? There’re a lot of reasons.
3) You can clearly see the difference between these two processes.
4) These special tax laws have been enacted in six states: Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, etc.
5) So far there hasn’t been much research on how conflict influences the level of trust
and respect in a group.
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UNIT1 Academic Writing Style
C. Linking Words and Flow
Sentences that are too short and poorly connected can be irritating to read. Linking words
and phrases can help a writer maintain flow and establish clear relationships between ideas.
??Task
Rewrite the following paragraph into one with an easy flow.
A conjunction connects words, phrases, or clauses. It indicates the relationship between
the elements. These elements connect. We often find the following thing. In only one single
sentence a conjunction contains one or more ideas. These ideas may be equal or unequal in
importance. Ideas are equal, and we call them coordinate ideas. For example, John studies
electronics. Helen studies computing. These two sentences can become a compound sentence.
It shows the relationship between the two ideas. We want to maintain the equality of the ideas.
We call the clauses in the new sentence coordinate clauses.
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研究生英语学术论文写作
IV Academic Writing Skills
A. Recognizing Different Styles
Different styles of writing have different features. Styles may be formal or informal, and
will usually vary to fit the audience and the medium of publication. Moreover, the style will
also affect how you read and interpret the document concerned. Understanding the writing
style will help you put your writing into perspective.
??Task
Read the following texts and choose the items from the box to decide where they are
taken from.
science magazine Hemingway’s short story: Cat in the Rain
advertisement research paper newspaper
1) At AT & Bell Laboratories infrared lasers are being used to capture live microbes.
Working like optical tweezers, the pressure of the laser light traps minute objects in
its focus point. Researchers are using the device to move around viruses, bacteria and
other cells that they are studying under the microscope. After several hours, however,
the focus light will heat up the microbes to a boiling point.
2) All we ask is that you spend two hours of your time attending a Barratt Sales
presentation. There, you’ll discover the benefits of timeshare. At Barratt we call it
Holiday Ownership because that’s why it really is. You’ll be under no obligation to
purchase, but we think you may be tempted.
3) There were only two Americans stopping at the hotel. They did not know any of the
people they passed on the stairs on their way to and from their room. Their room
was on the second floor facing the sea. It also faced the public garden and the war
monument. There were big palms and green benches in the public garden. In the good
weather there was always an artist with his easel. Artists liked the way the palms
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UNIT1 Academic Writing Style
grew and the bright colors of the hotels facing the garden and the sea.
4) Although many studies have already been done, more studies are needed to determine
the effects of microcomputer-assisted instruction in various teaching situations.
5) The parents of a seven-year-old Australian boy woke to find a giant python crushing
and trying to swallow him. The incident occurred in Cairns, Queensland and the
boy’s mother, Mrs. Dryden said, “It was like a horror movie. It was a hot night. He
suddenly started screaming. We rushed to the bedroom to find a huge snake trying
to strangle him.” Mrs. Dryden and her husband, Peter, tried to stab the creature with
knives, but the python bit the boy several times before escaping.
B. Choosing Appropriate Styles
Academic texts are usually precise, reliable, formal, and structured because the writers
always want to ensure that their work is clearly understood, and there is no room for
ambiguity. They also want to justify their point of view. So they support their writing with
evidence, either from their own work, or that of others.
??Tasks
Suppose you are going to write an essay as an assignment. Think about which of the
following sentences you would like to use in your writing and why. Then fill in the
blanks of the table on the next page.
1) He couldn’t finish his work in the time given.
2) The first set of results were compiled and presented by the other group of students.
3) I would like to focus on the following areas of research: ...
4) They argued that this methodology was unreliable.
5) In addition, the data was used to focus on the following hypothesis.
6) I enjoyed my English class with you and I am having a good experience this semester.
7) At about 12: 00 p.m. on August 21, 1984, she told us, I came out of the kitchen to
1
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
toss out some water.
8) We, at any rate, will continue to keep an open mind.
9) Is the menu at that French restaurant giving you trouble? Then you might need the
Voice, a hand-held computer that translates spoken English into French, Spanish,
German or Italian.
10) There is an emerging consensus that a concerted effort on a national level will be
required to capture the glittering prizes that a new technology offers.
No. Y/N Reason(s) for Your Decision
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
15
UNIT1 Academic Writing Style
Read the following paragraph about the picture. Then rewrite it in academic
style.
Why are there so many jams on the roads these days? One thing is that public
transportation like trains is so dear. A long time ago, cars cost a lot, but now, unfortunately,
they’ve got a lot cheaper. Another thing is that driving is a lot nicer than waiting for a bus. The
trouble is that if everyone buys a car, the roads get packed.
2
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
Read an article or a book extract in your subject area and identify examples to match the
characteristics of academic writing in the table. Make a list of these findings for future
reference.
Characteristics of Academic Writing Examples
Use passive voice
Write with structural complexity
Avoid a casual style
Use formal words and phrases
...
3
Research Proposal
? To understand the importance and
major components of a research
proposal;
? To become aware of the use
of personal pronouns and
nominalization in academic writing;
? To initiate your own research;
? To learn to write a research proposal.
2 UNIT
Learning Objectives
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
I Warm-up
Before you learn the detailed steps to write a research proposal, think about the following
questions:
? What is your purpose of initiating an academic research?
? Why do you need to write a research proposal?
? How do you choose a topic?
? Do you often encounter the first and second personal pronouns in academic writing?
Why?
II Sample Reading
Writing a Research Proposal*
A research proposal is an obvious and essential part of a postgraduate degree application
in most parts of the world. It is an outline of your proposed project, whose aim is to present
and justify your research idea and explain the practical ways in which you think that this
research should be implemented. You need to think very carefully about the scope of your
research and be ready to explain how you will complete it within the time frame and the
available resources. In addition, research proposals are used to evaluate your expertise in the
area in which you wish to conduct research, your knowledge of the existing literature, and
how your project will enhance it.
Short-term projects such as those undertaken at the undergraduate or postgraduate
diploma level are essential training for graduate research. The transition into a graduate
degree, such as a Master’s degree or a Ph.D., involves a much higher level of independent
thinking and activity than most students realize. A large number of students usually find this
transition very challenging and daunting. The challenge starts from the time when applicants
are required to write and present a research proposal.
Proposal writing is in fact a process of developing a specific research plan from a
* See Appendix 1 on Pages 143–154 for a sample research proposal.
19
UNIT2 Research Proposal
generalized idea to a specifically defined written document and oral presentation. Figure 2-1
illustrates a spiral. The top of the spiral represents the general subject matter that interests
you. The bottom of the spiral represents the specific research problem you will solve in your
dissertation.
Area of specialization statement
Comprehensive literature review
Focused literature review
General research concept
Specific
problem
statement
Figure 2-1 The research spiral illustrates the path from a general research interest to a
specific research problem.
The area of specialization (AOS) defines the top layer of the three-dimensional spiral,
the broad area, and describes the subfields within it or even other disciplines that connect to
it. It represents the material you draw from and will eventually contribute to your research.
The pieces of the AOS include the subjects or subfields that encompass your work, definitions
for those subjects, and a description of the problems addressed or current solutions. Many
investigators include more than one subject or subfield. In an era of transdisciplinary
research, these subjects can reach into multiple disciplines as well. Here are some examples of
subdisciplines from the social sciences: human ecology, demography, linguistic anthropology,
and econometrics.
The literature review starts where the AOS left off and digs deeper into those themes
by discussing what is known about your particular area, identifying the methods used to
investigate those themes, and highlighting what remains unknown.
A literature review is a synthesis (not a summary) of previous work in a specific area or
specific areas. A synthesis means you are bringing together different aspects of the literature
and creating something new with it. The result is a critical evaluation of the current theory and
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研究生英语学术论文写作
methods of a particular topic reflecting what is known, how it is known, and what is unknown.
The objective of the literature review in a proposal is to provide the reader with the knowledge
needed to understand your proposal. It is not an explanation of everything you know about a
particular subject. Because of this distinction, you need to perform a thorough investigation of
the literature but synthesize only the material relevant to your proposed research.
The difference between the two reviews as illustrated in Figure 2-1 (comprehensive
literature review and focused literature review) is the topical breadth. The first version is a
comprehensive review of the literature with the objective of teaching yourself what is known
about your interest area. Your research questions emerge from this first stage. The second and
final version is a focused review of the literature with the objective to inform the reader about
what is known and unknown in your area. The research area is a narrower set of literature
based on the research questions developed. The outcome of this stage is included in the
research proposal.
The document you write for the general research concept is positioned intellectually at
the intersection between the area of specialization (AOS) statement and the literature review.
It states that within the work everyone else has done, here sits a new problem area that needs
to be solved. It aims to answer three basic questions: what, how, and why.
The process begins with what and could include one or more of the following questions:
? What else can we know about something?
? What can we do better?
? What is a more complete explanation of something?
And deals with how:
? How has this problem been addressed by others?
? How will I do this differently?
And leads to why:
? Why do we want to know more about this?
? Why do we need to do it better?
? Why don’t we understand this part?
The answers to these basic questions form the basis for the generalized research concept.
The problem statement drills farther down the spiral from a research topic toward a
solution you work toward in your dissertation. The research problem (or research statement)
21
UNIT2 Research Proposal
refers to a specific instance of a generalized research goal within your area of specialization.
The idea that you are solving a problem suggests the problem can be solved. In many cases,
research results do not necessarily solve the problem but rather contribute to understanding it
better.
There are two distinguishable ways to describe the topic you are going to address: as
an objective and as a question. A research objective is a declarative statement describing
an outcome-based goal investigating facts, theories, or methods. The outcome is a better
understanding into a gap identified in the literature review. A research question is an
interrogative statement. Forming a research question is often identified as the initial step in
the scientific method. The scientific method refers to a specific approach for investigating a
problem or acquiring new knowledge.
The following components are essential in a research proposal, and you are advised to
ensure that all are present in your version. However, this is not to say you cannot add a few
other details that you feel may be necessary.
??
A Clear Working Title
Choosing your research topic is probably the first step and most important single
decision you have to make in carrying out your research. One of the key skills involved in
choosing a topic is to pick one of the appropriate size—neither too big nor too small—and
achievable within the time, space, and available resources. The title of the research project
given at the proposal level is often referred to as a working title. The reason for this is that it
is most likely to change as the work progresses. It is normal for students to refine the original
proposal in light of detailed literature reviews, further consideration of research approaches,
and comments received from the supervisors and/or other faculty members in the course of
the study. Nevertheless, you need to include important keywords that will relate your proposal
to relevant supervisors. Try to ensure that your title does not only simply describe the subject
matter but also gives an indication of your intended approach; for example, “Optimization
of Distributed Generation in Electric Power Systems Using Fuzzy-Genetic Algorithm
Approach”.
??
Overview of the Research
A brief overview of your research and the context into which it fits within the existing
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
academic literature should be provided in this section. Be as specific as possible in identifying
relevant influences or debates.
Be sure to establish a solid and convincing framework for your research in this section.
This should include a clearly articulated research problem, which typically takes the form of
concise questions regarding the relationship between two or more variables. In this section,
one to three research questions should suffice, and the reason for asking them, as well as
the significance of the research. The research problem should be capable of being tested
empirically.
??
Review of Literature
The primary purpose of a literature review is to help you become familiar with the work
that has already been carried out in the selected topic area. It is absolutely indispensable
when you plan a research study because it would guide you in the appropriate direction by
answering several questions related to the topic area: Has anybody worked on this topic area
before? If so, what suggestions can you make from the results of the earlier studies? Did they
encounter any methodological difficulties which you need to be aware of when planning your
own research? Is more research required to be carried out on this topic? If so, in what
specific area?
The literature review section should discuss the texts that you believe are most important
to the project, demonstrate your understanding of the research issues, and identify existing
gaps that your research intends to fill. You should also identify some leading scholars in the
field, particularly those whose published works you have studied.
A critical literature review is crucial to ensure that your project does not duplicate work
already done without having any knowledge that the same study has already been carried out.
You can often save yourself a good deal of time, money, and above all, the embarrassment
that might later ensue, by quickly changing the direction of your study if you discover, from
your literature review, that the research questions you are planning to conduct have already
been answered.
Also, the review of recent related literature could help you discover the latest facilities
that are more efficient than earlier existing ones in carrying out your work. Though literature
review could initially tend to be intimidating, most other things relating to research become
easier when it is done thoroughly, especially as you gain experience.
23
UNIT2 Research Proposal
??
Research Methodology
The methodology section is a hugely important part of your research proposal. It
chronicles the approach(es) you will use to achieve your research results. Incidentally, it is
the portion of the proposal that most students find the most difficult. For that reason, you may
wish to take a look at some past related theses to ensure that you know the appropriate way to
do things. In any case, this section should lay out, in clear terms, the way in which you will
structure your research and the specific methods you will use. A well-developed methodology
section is crucial. Make sure to include specific techniques and not just a general approach.
This should include the types of resources consulted, methods for collecting and analyzing
data, and you must be able to justify why you adopt the chosen method over other existing
approaches.
You need to specify the approach you feel will be most appropriate for your research.
Most postgraduate work involves empirical research. The successful completion of your
work in the time allotted thus often depends on the ability to obtain the data needed. If your
proposed research involves empirical work, you should provide an indication of the form
and location of that empirical work and where and how you might collect any relevant data.
You should give special attention to the feasibility of collecting the data. Generally, data
acquisition techniques include direct approaches such as interviews and questionnaires,
participant observations; indirect approaches such as instrumenting systems and fly on the
wall; and independent approaches such as static and dynamic analysis and documentation
analysis. Of these techniques, the first one is often not used in engineering, as most data are
usually system generated.
??
Facilities Required
Remember to explain the facilities to be used for the research in your proposal.
Usually, the list and description of the available facilities are available on the Web site of
the department. If not all necessary facilities (hardware/software) required for your research
project are available at the department, you should illustrate how they will be acquired and the
time it may take to put everything in place. Do not go for the most expensive facilities when
less expensive ones could be adapted and used for the same purpose. At the same time, you
must think of an alternative in case your department may not be ready to purchase the quoted
facilities in good time, which could in turn affect the completion time of your program.
24
English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
??
Conclusion
Although no indication of the research findings can be presented at this stage, it is often
beneficial to conclude the research proposal by indicating how you envisage the contribution
that your research will make to debates and discussions in your particular subject area. This
means providing an indication of the original contribution that you feel your research will
make, suggesting how it may fill in gaps in the existing research, and showing how it may
extend the understanding of particular topics. Conclusions should reflect the quality of your
ideas as expressed in your writing.
??
List of Key References
Your references should provide the reader with a good sense of your grasp on the
literature and how you can contribute to it. Be sure to reference the most recent texts and
resources that you think will play a large role in your analysis. It should show critical
reflection in the selection of appropriate texts and be used throughout your proposal to
demonstrate that you have read and had a fair understanding of the work of others. Literature
not cited in the text should not appear here and vice versa. It is also important to follow a
particular standard formatting style in your proposal. The IEEE format is well known in
engineering, and MLA and APA in humanity and social sciences.
(Adapted from M. F. Akorede & S. Amuda. 2014. Writing a Competitive Preliminary
Research Proposal for an Engineering Ph.D. Degree. IEEE Potentials, 33(3):13–16. and E.
A. Wents. 2014. How to Design, Write, and Present a Successful Dissertation Proposal. Los
Angeles: Sage Publications.)
??Tasks
Summarize the components of a research proposal based on the sample reading
in a few keywords and fill in the table.
Components Keywords
1)
1
25
UNIT2 Research Proposal
Components Keywords
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Read the following pairs of topics and decide which is more suitable for a shortterm
research. The first one is given as an example.
No. Topics Suitable
or Not
1)
a. In what way are graduate students of Southeast University (SEU)
(dis)satisfied with their college life? √
b. Students’ college life
2)
a. Job prospect of SEU graduates
b. An employment review
2
(Continued)
26
English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
No. Topics Suitable
or Not
3)
a. India in the age of the Moguls
b. Royal monuments of India during the age of the Moguls
4)
a. Classification of anxiety
b. Anxiety type among the SEU graduates
5)
a. English word learning
b. Needs analysis of English word learning among SEU graduates
6)
a. Faculty bilingualism
b. Is personal success of SEU faculty members correlated with
bilingualism?
7)
a. Is there an environmental impact on cities in South America
during holidays?
b. Is the volume of rubbish produced during the carnival in Buenos
Aires related to the economic revenue generated compared with
normal weekends?
8)
a. Is there an increase in waterborne disease in the three days
following summer holidays compared with the three days
following normal days in Caracas?
b. Is the water quality of South American cities with a large
population worse on Christmas day than on normal days?
(Continued)
27
UNIT2 Research Proposal
Decide whether the following questions are appropriate for research topics.
Why or why not? And how do you improve them if necessary?
1) How many cars are there visiting the Desert Vista Mall?
2) How do we improve reading in elementary schools?
3) Can remote sensing be used to detect impervious surfaces?
III Language Focus
A. Personal Pronouns
Singular Plural
First person I, me (my, mine) we, us (our, ours)
Second person you (your, yours) you (your, yours)
Third person
she, her (her, hers)
he, him (his)
it (its)
one (one’s)
they, them (their, theirs)
3
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
? First person pronouns
You can strengthen your impersonal tone and establish credibility by removing first
person pronouns in academic writing.
? Second person pronouns
Second person pronouns are seldom used in academic writing unless you give
instructions.
? Third person pronouns
Third person pronouns sound more objective and convincing, so they are safer and more
widely used in academic writing.
??Tasks
Rewrite the following sentences to make them more academic by avoiding first and
second person pronouns.
1) I think that the methodology section is a hugely important part of your research proposal.
2) When you review literature, you should be aware that you need to identify existing
gaps that your research intends to fill.
3) I chose this method because it was less complex.
4) My reading has shown that there are several reasons why plants are dispersed by ants.
5) The review of recent related literature could help you discover the latest facilities that
are more efficient than earlier existing ones in carrying out your work.
1
29
UNIT2 Research Proposal
6) I also found that the results of this study concurred with Berg’s (1975) hypothesis that
seeds are protected from fire through their burial in ants nests.
Rewrite the following paragraphs to make them more academic by avoiding
first and second person pronouns.
For our project we decided to check out the impact of two simple actions aimed at
getting more female employees to use the stairs at a five-floor worksite. The first thing we
did was that we put up a health sign that linked stair use to health and fitness. And the second
thing was an e-mail which we asked the worksite doctor to send out. We asked him to point
out how regular stair use could be really good for general fitness. We did the research by
checking things out in four states: a baseline week, the week after the sign, the week after the
e-mail and then three weeks after that.
We were really pleased that stair use went up a lot in the week after the sign, from a
baseline of 69% to 77%, and then up again to 89% after the e-mail. Unfortunately, four weeks
after the e-mail was sent out, stair use went down to 67% and we were very disappointed
about that. We had expected these simple actions to lead to more stair use, but we didn’t
think the positive effect would’ve vanished after a month. So it’s really difficult to make any
recommendations based on our evidence.
2
30
English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
B. Nominalization
The word “nominalization” defines itself, since it is itself an example of a
nominalization. When you turn a verb or an adjective into a noun, you nominalize it, creating
a nominalization. Nominalization types differ according to the level of organization at
which the nominalization takes place. Three types of nominalizations can be distinguished:
nominalizations at the level of the word (e.g. reject, rejection), nominalizations which
nominalize a structure that lies in between a verb and an object (e.g. Sam’s rejection of the
budget) and finally, nominalizations consisting of full clauses (e.g. Failure could result in
rejection of the budget.).
??Tasks
Write down the noun form of the words in the following table.
Words Noun Forms
discover
refer
special
describe
investigate
propose
indicate
1
31
UNIT2 Research Proposal
Words Noun Forms
specific
assume
efficient
liable
duplicate
extensive
significant
suffice
Rewrite the following sentences to make them more academic by using
nominalization.
1) Many children experience worries when they go to school for the first time.
2) Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.
2
(Continued)
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English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
3) Elephants argue over small concerns, just like humans.
4) We need to know which parts of our library are being used most extensively so that
we can project what resources are most needed.
5) I know English well. I worked for three years in a factory in Shanghai. I think I am
good enough for the job.
Rewrite the following paragraph to make it more academic by using
nominalization.
Because only a few people have most of the money and power in Australia, I conclude
that it is not an equal society. Society has an upper, middle and lower class and I think that
most people when they are born into one class, end up staying in that class for their whole life.
When all three classes are looked at more closely, other things such as the differences between
the sexes and people’s racial backgrounds also add to the unequal nature of Australian society.
3
33
UNIT2 Research Proposal
IV Academic Writing Skills
In this book, you will not only acquire the knowledge of academic writing, but also
writing skills; you will not only practice writing individual components of a paper, but also
go through the whole process of doing your own research, based on which you will be able
to produce a real research paper and make an oral presentation at the end of the semester as a
learning outcome. Please go to Appendix 2 (on Pages 155–156) for a suggested schedule for a
short-term research.
A. Selecting a Topic
Select a topic you really like, are curious about, or are an expert on. You are like a
traveler who is choosing where to go. If it is a place you like, you’ll enjoy getting there. But
if it turns out to be somewhere you do not like, getting there would be a misery for you. So
make sure that this topic is interesting to you.
??Task
The following is a list of topics that you may be interested in. Choose three
topics and discuss whether they are suitable for your group project with your
teammates. You can also propose your own.
Topics Possibilities for Research
1) Students’ living expenses
2) English word learning
3) Low-carbon life
34
English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
Topics Possibilities for Research
4) Primary education in China
5) Choosing a wife/husband
6) Job prospect of students
7) 5G
8)
9)
10)
B. Formulating the Focus
The generalized idea that you select as a research topic should be narrowed down and
developed to a specifically defined written document and oral presentation. The topic starts
where the area of specialization left off and digs deeper into those themes by refining what is
known about your particular area, identifying the methods used to investigate those themes,
and highlighting what remains unknown. So determiners or modifiers are usually added to the
first version of the topic.
(Continued)
35
UNIT2 Research Proposal
??Task
Narrow down the three topics in the table on Pages 33–34 that you are most
interested in by limiting them to some aspects, e.g., to a certain population,
theoretical foundation or methodology.
1)
2)
3)
C. Establishing a Working Title
A working title is a title you initially think of in order to establish a focus for your research
and writing. As you read and become more involved in the subject of your project, your viewpoint
may change. For example, the following is James’ working title and the process of refinement.
Educational Psychology
Psychological Testing in Schools
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and Its Present Day Adaptations
36
English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
??Task
The following is Eric’s research topic. Fill in the blanks to show a possible
process of refinement of his working title.
Explaining Vulnerability
Explaining Vulnerability of Adolescent Girls
Introduction &
Literature Review
? To understand the general functions
of the introduction section;
? To learn how to cite other people’s
previous work;
? To get familiar with the writing of a
literature review;
? To learn how to avoid plagiarism by
paraphrasing.
3 UNIT
Learning Objectives
38
English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
I Warm-up
A. Introduction
The introduction of a research paper is a summary or overview of your research for
guiding your readers. A good introduction is obviously essential to the whole research paper,
and therefore, knowing how to write the introduction is important to academic writing. Work
in pairs or groups and discuss the following questions:
? What are the general functions of the introduction section?
? What do you think is the most important function of the introduction section?
? What are probably included in the introduction section?
B. Literature Review
A literature review is not simply a summary of what you have read, but a critical and
in-depth evaluation of the previous research. It focuses on a specific topic of interest to
you and includes a critical analysis of the relationship among different opinions, and then
relates this review to the work of your own. It may be written as a stand-alone paper or to
provide a theoretical framework and rationale for a research study so as to become a part of
the introduction section, especially in term papers or journal articles. However, in a thesis
or dissertation it will be an entire chapter. Work in pairs or groups and discuss the following
questions:
? What is the purpose of writing a literature review?
? What steps may be taken in conducting a literature review?
? How do we cite other people’s previous work in our own research articles?
39
3 Introduction & Literature Review UNIT
II Sample Reading
Sample 1
The Application of Swales’ Model
in Writing a Research Article Introduction
Introduction
A research article is one of the genres of academic writing that is believed to be a great
medium for spreading and disseminating knowledge in the academic world (Peacock, 2002).
The need for information and knowledge from other experts from outside of one’s local area
has made research articles an important genre amongst scholars and researchers, who refer to
the already-published research articles in writing a good research article in order to convince
readers, editors as well as reviewers that the research article proposed deserves to be published
(Flowerdew, 1999). The importance of research article development in academic communities
has stimulated many scientists to conduct research on it, including the organization structure
of research articles. As part of the interest of studies conducted on all sections of research
articles, the introduction section has received special attention.
Writing a research article introduction is demanding. Safnil (2007) states that the
introduction for a research article represents the connection between the readers and the
authors’ work, if it can bridge the gap between the knowledge of the intended readers and the
research paper, then it will show that the introduction is successful. Hunston (1994) as cited
in Safnil (2007) also claims that the introduction section communicates the subpersuasive
purpose of the research article which shows that the research article is necessary and
worthwhile. Thus, if readers find that the introduction to the article is convincing, interesting,
and necessary, they will be more likely to read the whole article. Gupta (as cited in Safnil,
2007) asserts that writing an introduction for a scientific text raises problems for not only
novice authors or students but also for professional or experienced authors. Additionally,
Flowerdew (1999) states that “the introduction is challenging because it requires a persuasive
style of writing in which the individual voice of the author(s) needs to come through”.
On the basis of the importance, position, and function of a research article introduction, a
standard schema is needed in order to write one successfully. Otherwise, the writers’ intended
purpose may not be successfully conveyed to the readers and the writers may fail to convince
40
English Academic Writing for Graduate Students
研究生英语学术论文写作
them and also reviewers as well as editors that the article proposed deserves to be published.
This researcher, therefore, believes that the CARS or Swales’ model is a good schema to use
in writing a research article introduction. Based on the above research problem, the author
formulated the following research question: How does the Swales’ model apply for writing
the introduction section to convey the essence of a research article?
The present study tries to look at the application of the Swales’ model in providing a
solution for the problems faced by scholars and researchers in organizing an introduction
section for a research article. In particular, it aims to find out how the Swales’ model is
applicable for conveying the proper message for the introduction section to a research article.
Referring to the context of the author of this study, the study of the development of a research
article in English is still limited in undergraduate and graduate level studies. Moreover, it is
found that hardly any studies have been conducted on the application of the Swales’ model.
Thus, the result of this study will be fruitful for students at undergraduate and graduate levels
in writing a research article in English. It is hoped that this kind of study may contribute to
teaching academic writing and help teachers and students in organizing academic articles in
English.
(Adapted from Burhanuddin Yasin & Hijjatul Qamariah. 2014. The Application of
Swales’ Model in Writing a Research Article Introduction. Studies in English Language and
Education, 1(1): 29–41.)
Sample 2
Poverty and Environmental Degradation:
A Review and Analysis of the Nexus
Introduction
The poor have traditionally taken the brunt of the blame for causing society’s many
problems including, more recently, environmental degradation. There seems to be a general
consensus that poverty is a major cause of environmental degradation. For example, in one of
the conclusions of the Bruntland Commission Report, which incidentally has been accepted
as the blueprint for environmental conservation, it is explicitly stated that poverty is a major
cause of environmental problems and amelioration of poverty is a necessary and central
condition of any effective program addressing the environmental concerns. Along similar
41
3 Introduction & Literature Review UNIT
lines, Jalal (1993), the Asian Development Bank’s chief of the environment department
argues, “it is generally accepted that environmental degradation, rapid population growth, and
stagnant production are closely linked with the fast spread of acute poverty in many countries
of Asia”. The World Bank (1992) joined the consensus with its World Development Report,
where it explicitly states, “poor families who have to meet short-term needs mine the natural
capital by excessive cutting of trees for firewood and failure to replace soil nutrients”.
However, there has been a rising trend in the economic literature which disputes the
conventional theory and argues that simple generalizations of this multi-dimensional problem
are often erroneous and miss many important points and that a more complex set of variables
comes into play (Leach and Mearns, 1995). These studies point out demographic, cultural, and
institutional factors as important variables in the poverty-environmental degradation nexus.
An intricate web of factors plus feedback loops from environmental degradation to poverty
makes the process of identifying causality links, if any, between environmental degradation
and poverty a difficult exercise. However, these studies have been few and isolated and it is
interesting to note that until recently, there has been very little in-depth coordinated empirical
research in the economics of environmental degradation-poverty causality relationships.
Both poverty and environmental degradation have been increasing in many developing
countries; hence there is a pressing need first to evaluate and analyze the povertyenvironmental
degradation nexus, and second, to prescribe policy options to mitigate or
eradicate these two problems. The primary objective of the paper is to analyze critically the
existing literature on the poverty-environmental degradation nexus and try to make “some
order out of the chaos” inherent in this complex and difficult subject.
For this paper, the analysis is limited to the following four main natural resources which
are under serious threat of degradation in many developing countries: i) forests; ii) land; iii)
water; and iv) air. Biodiversity is excluded at this point because the preliminary literature
search found only scattered and limited information which was too crude to contribute to the
analysis of the poverty-environmental degradation link. However, it should not be inferred
that biodiversity is less important than any of the four resources investigated; indeed, it is an
area which needs particular attention in the future. The paper concludes with a summary of
the main findings of the literature review together with suggestions for future research.
(Adapted from Anantha K. Duraiappah. 1998. Poverty and Environmental Degradation:
A Review and Analysis of the Nexus. World Development, 26(12): 2169–2179.)
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??Tasks
Read Sample 1 and decide what elements this sample includes and how they
function.
Paragraphs Elements Functions
1
2
3
4
Read Sample 2 and decide what elements this sample includes and how they
function.
Paragraphs Elements Functions
1
2
3
4
1
2
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III Language Focus
A. Tenses in Citation
? Simple present tense
Authors mostly use the simple present tense verbs to cite other authors’ ideas, relate what
other authors say or discuss the literature, theoretical concepts, methods, etc. For example:
■ When it comes to technology, King states that we “need to be comfortable enough
with technology tools and services so that we can help point our patrons in the right
direction, even if we aren’t intimately familiar with how the device works” (11).
? Simple past tense
When you use the past tense, the reporting verb often occurs as an integral citation. In
other words, citations with past tense verbs and named researchers as subject seem to have
the discourse role of providing particulars for recounting events, results found or a preceding
generalization, or the basis for a claim, etc. Common verbs in the past tense are investigated,
studied, compared, analyzed, found, and examined. In the example below, the citation reports
the results of a single study.
■ Carlson and Benton (2007) found that as they increased the participants’ stress levels,
the results of their performance deteriorated.
? Present perfect tense
The present perfect tense can be used to state that the research results are recent,
expressing what has been found over an extended period in the past and up to the present to
highlight the direct relevance of previous studies to the writer’s own research. For example:
■ Although the results of pervious studies showed that further research was warranted
in this area, recent studies have demonstrated that educational methodology is now
moving in a new direction (Jones, 2007; Karstal, 2008).
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??Task
Check Sample 2 and complete the following table.
Questions Answers Purposes
1) Are there any sentences written
in the present tense?
2) Are there any sentences written
in the past tense?
3) Are there any sentences written
in the present perfect tense?
4) Which tense is used more? Why
do you think this is the case?
B. Citing Verbs
In academic writing, it is often necessary to refer to the research of others and to report
on their findings. In order to do so, we have to use citing verbs. Words like “say” and “tell”
are normally used in oral conversations, but they are not appropriate in formal academic
writing.
Citing verbs differ in terms of their strength; for example, “suggest” is much weaker
and more tentative than “argue”. The two verbs convey very different pictures about how the
author you are studying sees his or her materials and research.
Some citing verbs are used principally to show what the writer does and does not do.
These verbs do not indicate any value judgment on the part of the writer; they are called
“neutral” citing verbs.
A second group of verbs is used to show that the writer has an inclination to believe
something but still wishes to be hesitant; we call these “tentative” citing verbs.
Finally, if the writer has strong arguments to put forward and is absolutely sure of his or
her ground, we can use “strong” citing verbs to refer to these ideas.
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The main citing verbs in English are classified in terms of their function and strength as
follows:
“Neutral” Citing Verbs “Tentative” Citing Verbs “Strong” Citing Verbs
describe; show; reveal;
study; demonstrate; note;
point out; indicate; report;
observe; assume; take into
consideration; examine;
state; believe (unless this is
a strong belief); mention
suggest; speculate; intimate;
hypothesize; moot; imply;
propose; recommend; posit
the view that; question the
view that; postulate
argue; claim; emphasize;
contend; maintain; assert;
theorize; support the view
that; deny; negate; refute;
reject; challenge; strongly
believe that; counter the
view/argument that
When citing verbs are used, the structure of sentences can vary and be flexible. For
example:
■ Jones (1999) argues, in his study of thermodynamics, that...
■■ As Jones (1999) argues in his study of thermodynamics, ...
■ In his study of thermodynamics, Jones (1999) argues that...
It is possible (and often quite attractive stylistically) to invert the subject and verb when
citing. For example:
■ Thermodynamics, argues Jones (1999), is...
Citing the work of others often needs an extra sentence introduction or “lead-in”. For
example:
■ In considering Smith’s discussion on thermodynamics, Jones (1999) argues that...
??Task
Read the following three extracts on the issue of poverty and crime. Use
appropriate verbs to cite the underlined opinions and then integrate the
extracts into one paragraph as part of a literature review.
1) A study by McClatchy Newspapers, released in March finds that the ranks of the
severely impoverished are rapidly escalating. The study found that the percentage of
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poor Americans who are living in extreme poverty has reached a 32-year high. Today
nearly 16 million Americans live in “deep or severe poverty”. This is defined as
individuals living at half of the federal poverty line. This drastic rise in the level
of poverty extends beyond the traditional ghetto and reaches to suburban and rural
communities. At the same time, the poverty rise creates severe social problems. (By
Joseph Williams, 2010)
2) Starting from the 1970s, studies in the U.S. pointed more and more at the link
between unemployment, poverty, and crime. After that, other connections with
income level, schooling, neighborhood quality, education, etc. were revealed as
well. Fresh research from the U.K. even indicates that economic cycles may affect
variations in property and violent crimes. But most important of all, the unmistakable
characteristic of poverty and crime is that they’re both geographically concentrated in
the same areas. In other words, where you find poverty is also where you find crime.
And this reveals the strong connection between the two issues. (By Carl Holmes,
2011)
3) Sociologist and criminal justice scholars have found a direct correlation between
poverty and crime. One economic theory of crime assumes that people weigh
the consequences of committing crime. They resort to crime only if the cost or
consequences are outweighed by the potential benefits to be gained. The logical
conclusion to this theory is that people living in poverty are far more likely to commit
property crimes such as burglary, larceny, or theft. (By David Garland, 2012)
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IV Academic Writing Skills
A. Citing Previous Research
In any research paper, you will use information from other sources, placing your research
project in the context of previous findings in the field, and it is essential to use in-text
citations to accredit other researchers.
The exact format of an in-text citation will depend on the style you need to use, for
example, APA. Check with your academic institution to ensure that you provide the in-text
citations in the format that they are expecting.
When you cite the work of other authors, you may choose to focus either on the
information provided by that author, or on the author him- or herself. The first focus is called
information prominent because the information is given primary importance. In the second
type, author prominent citation, the author’s name is given more emphasis. It serves as the
subject of the sentence, followed by the year in parentheses, and then by the information.
Such citations can be either strong or weak, depending on how much emphasis is placed on
the identity of the author. For example:
■ Information prominent citation: Shrinking markets are also evident in other areas.
The wool industry is experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide
since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers (Smith, 2000).
■■ Author prominent citation: Shrinking markets are also evident in other areas. As
Smith (2000) pointed out, the wool industry was experiencing difficulties related to
falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers.
However, Jones et al. (2004) found that industry difficulties were more related to
quality of supply than to demand issues. It is clear that considerable disagreement
exists about the underlying sources of these problems.
■ Weak author prominent citation: Several authors have reported that the wool
industry is experiencing difficulties related to falling demand since the development of
high-quality synthetic fibers (Nguyen, 2005; Smith, 2000; Wilson, 2003).
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??Task
Read the following sentences and decide which kind of citation is used. Then
rewrite them in another kind of citation.
1) Several authors have suggested that automated testing should be more readily
accepted (Balcer, 1989; Stahl, 1989; Carver and Tai, 1991).
2) For viscoelastic fluids, the behavior of the time-dependent stresses in the transient
shear flows is also very important (Boger et al., 1994).
3) Close (1983) developed a simplified theory using an analogy between heat and mass
transfer and the equivalent heat transfer only case.
B. Relating Literature to Your Research
A literature review is a report or overview of literature found relevant to an area of
research or study. It provides an overview of the current literature that is available on a given
subject, usually in academia. A literature review should answer the following questions:
? What do we already know in the immediate area concerned?
? What are the characteristics of the key concepts or the main factors or variables?
? What are the relationships between these key concepts, factors or variables?
? What are the existing theories?
? Where are the inconsistencies or other shortcomings in our knowledge and understanding?
? What views need to be (further) tested?
? What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory or too limited?
? Why should we (further) study the research problem?
? What contribution can the present study be expected to make?
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? What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?
It is easy to write a bad literature review and difficult to write a good one. The main
mistake that a lot of people make is to write a literature review that looks like this:
■ Until recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of coastal erosion and
the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out numerous laboratory experiments
and field observations to illuminate the darkness of this field. Their findings and
suggestions are reviewed here.
Jachowski (2008) developed a model investigation conducted on the interlocking
precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of damages caused by the severe
storm at the coast of U.S.A., a new and specially shaped concrete block was developed
for use in shore protection. This block was designed to be used in a revetment type
seawall that would be both durable and economical as well as reduce wave run-up and
overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was proved that effective shore protection
could be designed utilizing these units.
Hom-Ma and Horikawa (2008) studied waves forces acting on the seawall which was
located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental results conducted to measure
waves forces against a vertical wall, the authors proposed an empirical formula of wave
pressure distribution on a seawall. The computed results obtained by using the above
formula were compared well with the field data of wave pressure on a vertical wall.
Selezov and Zheleznyak (2009) conducted experiments on scour of sea bottom in
front of harbor seawalls, on the basis of the theoretical investigation of solitary wave
interaction with a vertical wall using Boussinesque type equation. It showed that the
numerical results were in reasonable agreement with laboratory experimental data.
??Task
Consider again the purpose of writing a literature review. Then answer the
following questions about the literature review above.
1) What questions does this literature review answer?
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2) What questions doesn’t it answer?
3) Which method has the writer used to organize the literature review?
4) Is it a good literature review? Why or why not?
C. Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is copying or borrowing another person’s ideas or words without proper
citing. Using another author’s intellectual property without permission is thought to be
an academic dishonesty. However, it doesn’t mean that we should not use the writings of
other authors. We can include other authors’ ideas or words in our own papers by quoting,
paraphrasing or summarizing and citing the sources.
When paraphrasing, we should modify not only the vocabulary of the passage but also
the method of expression. We should use synonyms to replace all the words we can except
generic words. Besides, we should change the structure of sentences: change the sentence
pattern, choose different parts of speech, or change the voice.
Summarizing is another way to avoid plagiarism. The main difference between
paraphrasing and summarizing is the size of the eventual result: A summary is much shorter
than an original passage while a paraphrase is almost as long as or even longer than the
original passage. For example:
■ Original sentence: The fox stalked its prey in the moonlight, its large ears and bright
eyes on high alert for the rabbit’s next move.
■■ A paraphrase: The rabbit stayed still in the light of the moon while the fox surveyed the land
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3 Introduction & Literature Review UNIT
using its spectacular hearing and night vision.
■ A summary: Foxes hunt rabbits at night using their ears and eyes.
??Tasks
Read the following original sentence and the three paraphrases. Then decide
which paraphrase is acceptable and which is unacceptable. Give reasons.
Original sentence: We do not yet understand all the ways in which brain chemicals
are related to emotions and thoughts, but the salient point is that our state of mind has an
immediate and direct effect on our state of body. (Source: Siegel, B. 1986. Love, Medicine
and Miracles. New York: Harper and Row.)
Paraphrase 1: Siegel (1986) writes that although the relationship between brain chemistry
and thoughts and feelings is not fully understood, we do know that our psychological state
affects our physical state.
Paraphrase 2: Siegel (1986) writes that we still do not know all the ways in which brain
chemistry is related to emotions and thoughts, but the important point is that our mental state
has an immediate and direct effect on our physical state.
Paraphrase 3: According to Siegel (1986), our mind affects our body quickly and
directly, although we do not yet understand every aspect of how brain chemicals relate to
emotions and thoughts.
1
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Paraphrase the following sentences to make them more academic.
1) The bomb exploded and caused many casualties.
2) Among all the feelings of mankind, love is probably the noblest.
3) With no doubt, these firms are doing their part in educating the next generation of
thinkers.
4) No one knows how many CEOs suffer from alcoholism and drug abuse, but estimates
run as high as 30%.
5) There is a general consensus among European leaders that total unification of
European countries would strengthen the economic stability of the entire region.
6) Attitudes toward the elderly are changing dramatically as baby boomers grow older.
For many years the elderly were seen as less useful once they reached retirement age.
However, the new research points to the increased productivity of aged workers, even
those who are in their 80s and 90s.
2
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D. Writing a Literature Review
Writing a literature review is often the most daunting part of writing an article, book,
thesis, or dissertation. In their book, Destination Dissertation: A Traveler’s Guide to a Done
Dissertation, Sonja Foss and William Walters describe a highly efficient and effective way of
writing a literature review. Below is a summary of the steps they outline as well as a step-bystep
method for writing a literature review.
? Step 1: Decide on your areas of research.
Before you begin to search for articles or books, decide beforehand what areas you are
going to research. Make sure that you only get articles and books in those areas, even if you
come across fascinating books in other areas.
? Step 2: Search for the literature.
Conduct a comprehensive bibliographic search of books and articles in your area of
research.
? Step 3: Find relevant excerpts in the books and articles.
Skim the contents of each book and article and look specifically for these five things:
claims, conclusions, and findings about the constructs you are investigating; definitions of
terms; calls for follow-up studies relevant to your project; gaps you notice in the literature;
and disagreement about the constructs you are investigating.
Make sure to note the name of the author and the page number following each excerpt.
Do this for each article and book that you have in your stack of literature.
? Step 4: Encode the literature.
Sort the excerpts into similar topics. Figure out what the main themes are. Place each
excerpt into a themed file. Make sure each note goes into a file.
? Step 5: Create your conceptual schema.
Figure out the best way to organize the excerpts that make sense.
? Step 6: Write your literature review.
Use that conceptual schema to write up your literature review based on the excerpts.
Don’t forget to include the citations as you write, so as not to lose track of who said what.
Once you complete these six steps, you will have a complete draft of your literature
review.
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??Task
Follow the six steps on the previous page to write a literature review for your
research article.
Methodology Description
? To learn to describe research
methodology;
? To understand the importance of
passive voice in academic writing;
? To make proper use of sequential
markers in writing a process;
? To acquire the skills of designing a
questionnaire.
4 UNIT
Learning Objectives
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I Warm-up
In natural sciences the method section is often called Materials and Methods. In social
sciences it is common to introduce a section called Theory and Methods. Sometimes it is
divided into two sections: Theoretical Framework and Methods.
Research methodology is mainly concerned with the answers to the following questions:
? Why is a particular research undertaken?
? How has one formulated a research question?
? What types of data have been collected?
? What particular methods have been used?
? Why is a particular technique of data analysis used?
The following terms are vital in describing your methodology.
Research methodology: Research methodology describes the method which the
researchers will use in gathering relevant data for their research work and deciding the
instrument needed for the data collection, the measure taken to ensure that the instrument
would achieve the intended result, and the techniques employed in data analysis.
Data collection: A good research is not likely to be achieved without the collection
and analysis of data. The collected and analyzed data determines the result of the research.
If the wrong data is collected or the process of data collection is not the right one for the
intended research, the analysis will be faulty and that will bring about a wrong result. It is
the responsibility of the researchers to ensure that they make use of relevant data and valued
instrument for data collection and analysis. Data can be primary or secondary.
Quantitative data: This kind of data deals with quantities, values, or numbers. Thus,
it is usually expressed in numerical forms, such as length, size, amount, price, and even
duration. The use of statistics to generate and subsequently analyze this type of data adds
credibility to research, so quantitative data is generally seen as more reliable and objective.
Qualitative data: This type of data, on the other hand, deals with quality, so that
it is descriptive rather than numerical in nature. Unlike quantitative data, it is generally
unmeasurable, and is gained mostly through observation. Researchers often make use of
adjectives and other descriptive words to refer to data on appearance, color, texture, and other
qualities.
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II Sample Reading
Parental Phenol Exposure and Spontaneous Abortion in Chinese
Population Residing in the Lower Reach of the Yangtze River
Methodology
The subjects were volunteers from affiliated hospitals of Nanjing Medical University.
The Institutional Review Board of Nanjing Medical University approved the protocol. All
the studies involving human subjects were conducted under full compliance with government
policies and the Helsinki Declaration. After explanation of the study procedures and
clarification of questions raised, all subjects signed informed consent forms. A complete
physical examination, including height and weight, was performed. A questionnaire was
designed to collect information, including personal background, lifestyle factors, occupational
and environmental exposures, genetic risk factors, sexual and reproduction status, medical
history, and physical activity. The controls included were couples who had no history
of spontaneous abortion and had at least one living child. The cases were couples who
suffered a medically unexplained spontaneous abortion. We excluded the subjects with
some known factors related to spontaneous abortion, such as chromosomal abnormality,
uterine abnormalities, autoimmune diseases, infection, occupational exposure to some toxins
suspected to be associated with spontaneous abortion from this study. 295 eligible couples
were recruited to participate. Of the approached, 84.7% consented (250 couples: 70 couples
eligible cases and 180 couples eligible controls). All participants claimed that their lifestyles
and environments had not changed for several months leading up to sample collection. Urine
samples were collected from each subject on the designated morning. Urine samples were
frozen at –20℃ for phenol analysis.
The total urinary concentrations of phenols were measured with a previously described
method using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography. Firstly, urine samples were
incubated in 1 ml ammonium acetate buffer solution for hydrolyzation with β-glucuronidase
overnight. After hydrolysis, the phenols were extracted and preconcentrated with solid phase
extraction (SPE) and determined with UPLC electro-spray ionization (negative ion mode)-
MS/MS. The intra- and inter-day precisions for these compounds were between 2% and
41% and the recoveries were between 86% and 131% at spiked concentration of 220 ng/ml.
Quality control samples were analyzed in parallel with unknown samples in each analytical
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series. Creatinine (CR) concentrations were analyzed for correcting the phenol concentration
variations caused by fluctuated urine concentration and dilution. CR concentrations of urine
were measured with an automated chemistry analyzer (7020 Hitachi, Japan).
All data analysis was performed by using Stata 9.2 statistical software package (Stata
Corp, LP). T-test was used to compare the mean age, body mass index (BMI) between case
and control groups. The chi-square test was used to evaluate the differences in smoking status
and drinking status between case and control groups. All samples were divided into two
groups for statistical analysis. The samples with concentrations<LOD were assigned to the
low exposure group, and the remaining samples with detectable concentrations were assigned
to the high exposure group. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were
calculated for spontaneous abortion in relation to urine phenol exposure by paternal smoking,
maternal alcohol use and BMI which were significantly different between case and control
groups. In addition, urinary creatinine was included as a continuous variable to adjust for
urinary dilution. We considered p≤0.05 statistically significant.
(Adapted from Chen, X. J. et al. 2013. Parental Phenol Exposure and Spontaneous Abortion
in Chinese Population Residing in the Lower Reach of the Yangtze River. Chemosphere,
93: 217–222.)
??Tasks
What information elements does this method section include? Fill in the
following table with relevant details from the sample reading.
Information Elements Relevant Details
1
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4 Methodology Description UNIT
Information Elements Relevant Details
Answer the following questions based on the sample reading.
1) How was the sample collected?
2) Is the sample size big enough to be representative of the study population? Why?
3) What is the questionnaire designed for in this survey?
III Language Focus
A. The Passive Voice
The passive voice is widely used in academic writing, because passive structures
have less subjective coloring in most cases than active ones. When you describe a process
or a scientific experiment, it is important to write in a neutral style, as an observer. To do
this, you can use the passive voice. There are three instances in which the passive voice is
2
(Continued)
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recommended: i) when you do not know or do not care about who has performed the action;
ii) when you focus on the receiver instead of the performer of the action; and iii) when you
would like to remain in a neutral or objective position in writing. Some examples from the
methodology section using passive structures are as follows:
■ The study was conducted at the beginning of the semester and the final one was given
at the end of the semester. (procedure)
■■ In summer, the greenhouse was cooled by pulling in air through water saturated pads
on the south end of the building. (specially designed material)
■■ The quartz reactors tested for this work are fabricated by the A & B Sales Company of
Wheeling, Leeds, U.K. (instrument)
■■ In order to provide a broad sampling of college students, respondents were recruited
from diverse fields of study. (sampling)
■ The final scores were computed into mean averages (X) and standard deviations (SD).
(data analysis)
??Tasks
Reread the sample reading and write down the verbs using the passive voice in
the following table.
Information Elements Verbs Using the Passive Voice
Sample collection
Procedure
Materials
Data analysis
1
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Rewrite the following paragraph by using the passive voice to make it more
academically acceptable.
Some people consider a poison ivy infection to be humorous. But it is not funny at all.
Contact with the plant causes a rash that has the intensity of a fresh mosquito bite and lasts for
several days. Scientists have studied poison ivy infection for centuries, but they have found
no preventive pill or inoculation. The poisonous substance in the plant is called urushiol. After
urushiol has touched the skin, blisters and weeping sores will soon cover the exposed area.
The following expressions in the table are commonly used in the method
section. Complete the paragraph below by translating the Chinese in the
brackets into English.
Subjects/Participants choose; include; recruit; select; volunteer; participate...
Materials
be composed of; be located; be installed; be equipped with;
obtain; supply...
Procedure conduct; implement; administer; perform...
Data analysis
be determined; be scored; be conducted; be used; be
performed; be calculated...
A group of MBA candidates from Southeast University were recruited as participants for
the investigation. 1) (问卷调查被实施) after
the topic of the BSC had been discussed in the course. 136 students enrolled in a managerial
accounting course 2) ( 完成了此次问卷).
2
3
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3)
( 表2 给出了这些参与者的背景信息). As is shown, the majority of the participants were
girl students. 4)
( 参与者的平均年龄约29 岁), 5)
( 平均工作年限约6 年). The average
number of accounting courses was approximately four for each semester.
The following sentences are taken from the method section of different
research articles. Polish or correct them so that they are more academically
acceptable.
1) Table 5 shows the number of students per level and their L1 language backgrounds
which are represented.
2) Two questionnaires which were sent respectively to the personnel officers and
business employees show a similar result in terms of their perception of the use of
English in their firm.
3) The scores of the two raters were averaged and all the data were entered for statistical
analysis.
4) The model which was used in the experiment was a modified version of the 2009
Test package, which was originally developed by the Morrison Research Institute.
5) These engines used to be started by hand. Now we start them by electricity.
4
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4 Methodology Description UNIT
6) One of the great advantages of atomic power stations is the fact that people can build
them in the very region where power is inadequate.
7) Observations are made daily at two hundred weather stations in and around the
British Isles, which send in reports every three hours. Weather ships also make
measurements of wind speed, temperature and pressure in the Atlantic.
8) People fix a kind of lid to the top of the pipe, and they allow the oil to flow out gently
through taps.
B. Sequential Markers
A process paragraph explains how to do something or how something works. Process
paragraphs are usually developed step by step in a chronological or logical sequence. The
following sequencing expressions are more frequently used to link steps in a description of a
process or to divide a process into steps:
? Firstly..., To begin with..., First of all..., etc.;
? Secondly..., Next..., After that..., In addition..., etc.;
? Finally..., Lastly..., etc.
??Task
The following sentences describe the process of making paper. Use sequential
expressions to rewrite them into a cohesive paragraph.
1) The logs are placed in the shredder.
2) They are cut into small chips and mixed with water and acid.
3) They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp which is cleaned.
4) It is chemically bleached to whiten it.
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5) It is passed through rollers to flatten it.
6) Sheets of wet paper are produced.
7) The water is removed from the sheets which are pressed, dried, and refined, and the
finished paper is produced.
IV Academic Writing Skills
A. Identifying Information Elements
A well-organized, logically ordered and understandable method section can make your
paper or thesis a really outstanding work. Normally, a method section includes the following
information elements:
? Overview of the research: a brief description about what has been done;
? Subjects: the people/subjects studied, or the things tested;
? Location: where a research takes place;
? Restrictions/Limiting conditions: precautions taken to make sure that the data is valid;
? Sampling techniques: describing how the subjects are selected for research;
? Materials: the materials used to conduct a study or an experiment;
? Procedure: the steps of conducting the research in a chronological order;
? Statistical treatment: describing how the statistics are examined.
Of all the information elements mentioned above, the only items that are always included
in the method section are materials and procedure.
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4 Methodology Description UNIT
??Task
The following sentences are taken from the method section of different
research articles. Write down the information element(s) presented.
1) A total of 369 participants of European origins (52.7% female) with a mean age of
27.2 years were recruited by research assistants in public places in the Montreal
region.
2) The data used for the current analysis consists of 60 texts taken from 20 engineering
journals.
3) Experimenters approached potential participants by introducing themselves as
students from the University of Quebec in Montreal and then asked if they would
agree to participate in a short study on facial expressions.
4) The study aims to examine the use of SEF as a tool for providing evidence of
teaching effectiveness in tertiary education.
5) The results of the two questionnaires were subjected to statistical tests of reliability
and significance using SPSS.
6) Envelopes containing the survey materials were sent to the local business manager
of each union. In the envelopes, there was a cover letter explaining the project, the
questionnaire itself, and a pre-paid return envelope. The union business manager was
contacted and asked to select workers from his union and to send the envelopes to the
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chosen workers.
7) The participants were 90 first-year students from the School of Foreign Languages at
a key university in Nanjing. Their average age was 18 years old. They constituted a
convenience sample.
8) The investigation was performed in a national laboratory affiliated to a research
center for industrial automation in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province.
B. Ordering Methodology Elements
Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing,
explaining, and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. You need to state the
purpose of the study and define the problem/issue clearly. This guides you in deciding the
methodology of research which involves:
? identifying the method of research;
? specifying the subjects of study;
? selecting an adequate representative sample of subjects;
? selecting reliable instruments for measuring the variables in a problem;
? selecting a research design and describing the procedure to be employed for
conducting your research;
? collecting data;
? analyzing and interpreting your results.
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4 Methodology Description UNIT
??Task
The following sentences are taken from the method section of a research article in
a scrambled order. Try to put them back into a logical order. Write the sequential
number in the box on the right side of the table below.
a. The data was rank-ordered from the lowest X value of 1.2 to the highest of
3.8—see Table 2 below.
b. The SD scores show to what extent the teachers agreed among themselves
when judging the gravity of each error.
c. The survey was conducted by means of a questionnaire, in which the errors
appeared in a random order.
d. The assessors were instructed to view each error in its context and
determine to what extent it deviated from normal English.
e. The questionnaire included the context in which each error had occurred
and a marking scale ranging from 0 for “no error” to 5 for “the most severe
error”.
f. After scoring, the assessors were given the option to write down the
principles that guided them in their scoring.
g. The scores were computed into mean averages (X) and standard deviations
(SD).
h. Unless otherwise indicated, the numerical data in the text refers to the
mean average scores.
i. The higher the SD score, the more diverse the assessors’ opinions
regarding the gravity of the item.
C. Gathering Information for a Method Section
The method section of a research paper provides the information by which a study’s
validity is judged. So it requires a clear and precise description of how an experiment was
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done, and the rationale for why specific experimental procedures were chosen. Therefore, the
method section should describe:
? the materials used in the study;
? how the materials were prepared for the study;
? the research protocol;
? how measurements were made and what calculations were performed;
? which statistical tests were done to analyze the data.
??Task
Suppose you are required to write the method section of a research paper about
a group of students’ attendance in English class. The necessary information
elements have been given in the table below. Gather information for your
research and fill in the blanks of the table.
Research objective
To investigate into the status quo of a group of students’
attendance in English class and reasons for their absence.
Subjects
Sampling
Materials
Procedure
Data analysis
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4 Methodology Description UNIT
D. Describing Methodology
Although there is no standard way of writing the research methodology, a wellorganized,
logically ordered and easily understandable chapter on methodology makes your
paper a really outstanding work. For the benefit of those who wonder how to write research
methodology, a few tips are provided below. The methodology need not be described in detail,
but it has to be justified so that the results have a validity and credibility.
? The selection between qualitative and quantitative research has to be justified.
? If a survey of students in five high schools in an area is selected, the sample size and
the selection of samples have to be justified. Selection methods also have to be stated.
? Arrangements for data collection have to be stated and justified.
? Interview questions or questionnaires have to be stated and justified.
? Methods and software for analyzing data have to be stated and justified.
??Tasks
According to the information in the following table, write the method section of
a research paper about an experiment to investigate into students’ preferences
and attitudes towards sugar-sweetened and artificially-sweetened beverages.
Research objective
To determine students’ preferences and attitudes towards
sugar-sweetened and artificially-sweetened beverages.
Subjects
10 participants, including 5 male students and 5 female
students, from a Science English class, chosen at random.
Materials
30 straws, 2 cups, 1 blindfold, and 2 containers of Kool-
Aid (a popular drink in the United States), 1 container with
4 cups of orange Kool-Aid sweetened with one half cup of
sugar, the other container with 4 cups of orange Kool-Aid
sweetened with 9 packets of NutraSweet brand artificial
sweetener.
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Procedure
10 volunteer students, in two lines, one for males and
the other for females. Alternately, men and women test,
with a blindfold over the eyes of the tester, he/she could
not see; the two cups were filled with beverage, one with
artificially-sweetened Kool-Aid and the other with sugarsweetened
Kool-Aid. Finally the remaining drink was
thrown away, and the next tester came forward and repeated
the process.
Data analysis The final answers were tabulated for data analysis.
E. Designing a Questionnaire
The design of a questionnaire depends on whether the researcher wishes to collect
qualitative information (i.e., exploratory information for a better understanding of something
or for the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific
hypotheses that have been generated previously).
A good questionnaire is one that: i) enables you to collect accurate data effectively;
ii) facilitates data collecting, data processing, and data tabulating; iii) ensures that there is
no collection of non-essential information; and iv) permits comprehensive and meaningful
analysis as well as purposeful utilization of the data collected.
There are many different types of questions you can use to get the information that
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4 Methodology Description UNIT
you need. In general, they fall into open and closed questions. An open question allows the
respondents to use their own words to answer; for example, “What do you think are the main
causes of racism?” A closed question gives respondents pre-defined options; for example,
“Which of the following do you think is the main cause of racism: a, b, c, or d?”
The features of both open and closed questions are listed in the following table:
Features of Open Questions Features of Closed Questions
Eliciting “rich” qualitative data Eliciting quantitative data
Encouraging thought and freedom of expressions
Encouraging “mindless” replies
Discouraging responses from less literate
respondents
Easy for respondents at any literacy level
Taking longer to answer and may put
some people off
Quick to answer and may improve the
response rate
More difficult to analyze—responses can
be misinterpreted
Easy to “code” and analyze
Look closely at the following example of a rating scale in a questionnaire:
Do you agree, disagree or have no opinion that this company has:
Agree Not Sure Disagree
A good vacation policy □ 1 □ 2 □ 3
Good management feedback □ 1 □ 2 □ 3
Good medical insurance □ 1 □ 2 □ 3
High wages □ 1 □ 2 □ 3
Or, please rate the quality of the medical insurance of this company.
□ Poor □ Fair □ Good
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The following are eight steps involved in designing a questionnaire:
? Determine the information required;
? Define the target respondents;
? Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents;
? Design questions;
? Put questions into a meaningful order and format;
? Check the length of the questionnaire;
? Pre-test the questionnaire;
? Develop the final survey form.
??Task
Work in groups of four and design a questionnaire to obtain information about
students’ class attendance and the reasons for their absence.
Results & Discussion
? To understand the function and the
major elements of the results and
discussion section;
? To learn how to describe graphic
information;
? To grasp the tips for making
comparison and contrast;
? To learn how to present the cause and
effect relationship;
? To learn how to strengthen or weaken
a claim.
5 UNIT
Learning Objectives
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I Warm-up
Do you know how to report the results of your research and how to discuss the results?
In a journal paper, the results and discussion section is to present the results with texts and
the statistical techniques such as tables and graphs and then to explain and contemplate
the results. Generally speaking, the results part can be arranged according to the research
questions. The discussion can either be a part of the results section or a separate section of its
own, which should be in line with the practice of your target journal. The discussion section
will always be connected to the introduction section by way of the question(s) or posed
hypotheses and cited literature, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction
section. Instead, it tells how your study has moved forward from where you leave us at the
end of the introduction section.
Think about the following questions and then have a discussion with your classmates:
? What is the function of the results and discussion section?
? What major elements should be included in the results and discussion section?
? How do you describe graphic information in the results section?
? How do you compare and contrast the data presented in the graphs?
? How do you present a cause and effect relationship?
? How do you strengthen or weaken the claims?
II Sample Reading
The Role of Language for Thinking and Task Selection
in EFL Learners’ Oral Collocational Production
Results
Question 1. Types of Language for Thinking and Lexical Collocational Errors
One key issue in this study was whether a learner’s type of language for thinking
influences lexical collocational production. We explored this issue by examining one
retrospective report on the questionnaire, ‘‘When tape recording, what language did you
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mainly use for inner speech?’’ Based on their responses, we classified the 42 participants into
four language groups: Chinese, English, Chinese mingled with English, and other languages.
We compared participants’ inaccuracy rates, obtained by dividing the number of errors by the
overall number of lexical collocations they produced individually, among the language groups.
Our preliminary analysis discovered that the 42 participants produced a total of 2,491
lexical collocations, and each participant created approximately 29 lexical collocations per
minute. Regarding learner errors, we found 263 incorrect collocations among the 2,491 lexical
collocations, resulting in an inaccuracy rate of 10.56. To report the effect of language for
thinking on the production of lexical collocations in speech, Table 5-1 records the fact that 5
students stated that their type of language for thinking was for the most part Chinese.
Table 5-1 Type of Language for Thinking and Inaccuracy Rates of Lexical Collocations
Group N M (%) SD (%) F Comments
Chinese (CH) 5 15.17 5.48 4.07* CH>CE*
English (EN) 17 12.40 6.72 EN>CE*
Chinese mingled with
English (CE)
20 8.44 4.32
Others 0
Note: Mean shows the average inaccuracy rate of collocations in each group.
*p<0.05
As Table 5-1 shows, 17 mainly used English for thinking, 20 primarily thought in
Chinese mingled with English, and none thought in other languages. We calculated the
inaccuracy rate of oral lexical collocations in each language group by dividing the total
number of lexical collocational errors by the total number of lexical collocations produced.
Descriptive statistics demonstrated that those who mainly thought in their native language
(Mandarin Chinese) produced the highest inaccuracy rate of lexical collocations (M=15.17),
followed by those who primarily thought in English (M=12.40) and those using a combination
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(M=8.44). Results of a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) further displayed that the
difference among these three groups reached a significant level, F(2, 39)=4.07, p<0.05.
This result supports the notion that EFL learners’ type of language for thinking appreciably
influences their oral production of lexical collocations.
To probe intergroup differences, we adopted the Fisher Least Significant Difference
(LSD) post hoc test, which aims at discerning whether the comparison between groups
reaches the significance level. The LSD test showed that the Chinese-mingled-with-English
group had a markedly lower inaccuracy rate than the Chinese or English groups, while the
difference between the Chinese and English groups was not significant. Thinking in both
Chinese and English was more beneficial and effective to the EFL learners’ oral production of
lexical collocations.
Question 2. Oral Elicitation Tasks and Lexical Collocational Errors
We measured the relationship between oral task and lexical collocation by comparing
inaccuracy rates of lexical collocation under three speech conditions. The number of lexical
collocations and errors and the inaccuracy rates in each task are shown respectively in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2 Differences Among Three Oral Elicitation Tasks in Inaccuracy Rates
Task Type # of Collocations # of Errors % M SD F
Picture description 786 82 10.43 10.23 8.80 0.58
Comic strip 742 72 9.70 10.23 8.42
Prepared speech 963 109 11.32 11.86 8.82
Note: % means the inaccuracy rate of lexical collocations in each task.
To ascertain if the task effect was statistically significant, we compared the 42 participants’
data among the three speech conditions. The study found that they performed worst in
prepared speech, and inaccuracy in this task was greater than in other tasks. We further
employed a repeated-measures ANOVA to test differences across the three tasks. Table 5-2
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plots the difference among the three oral elicitation tasks: It did not reach the significance
level, F(2, 82)=0.58, p>0.05. This result indicates that the selection of oral elicitation tasks did
not starkly influence the inaccuracy rate of lexical collocations.
Discussion
Question 1. Types of Language for Thinking and Lexical Collocational Errors
The first research question investigated how learners’ choice of language for thinking
influences lexical collocation production. Statistically significant results revealed that
learners primarily using Chinese mingled with English in thinking had the lowest inaccuracy
rate, supporting the assumption that the type of language for thinking directly impacts oral
lexical collocation. De Guerrero (1994) pointed out the major function of inner speech for
metacognition. In general, speakers use their inner speech to plan, guide, and evaluate their
own action. Inner speech in a way is the vehicle to help speakers form, develop, and voice
their verbal thoughts. It facilitates SLA through the use of one’s first language (L1) and the
target language. Findings confirmed that learners can benefit while thinking in both the L1 and
the target language, thus demonstrating inner speech as having cognitive and metacognitive
support in speech production, especially in terms of oral lexical collocations. By contrast, if a
learner primarily resorts to his or her L1, then oral production in English will depend on direct
translation, causing a great deal of L1 interference at all linguistic levels. This finding accords
with Goh’s (2002) assumption that translation as a cognitive tactic slows down cognitive
processing and distracts learners from some helpful linguistic clues. In the same vein, if
English was used as the primary medium for thinking, then learners’ nonnative, undeveloped
English competence might also greatly hinder clear expression. In addition, as Brown (2001)
stated, thinking in the target language may avoid the occurrence of some transfer errors from
one’s L1. Corresponding to Brown, this study argued that an optimal degree of inner speech in
English can help speakers minimize lexical collocational errors in speech.
This study indicated an interesting finding: Thinking mainly in English was not
beneficial for oral production of lexical collocations, even when learners were at the advanced
level of proficiency. Although it was unexpected, the finding that those in the Chinesemingled-
with-English group performed best may have also provided a pedagogical suggestion
that training EFL learners to think in English moderately can be helpful. To encourage
thinking in English, educators can extend some of the metacognitive training activities
proposed in Oxford (1990) to train learners’ effective use of inner language. For instance, in
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a speaking task, while learners particularly at elementary and intermediate levels may often
resort to their native language for thinking, instructors can encourage them to link the task
with what they already know, such as familiar events and English phrases and sentences.
On the one hand, talking about familiar events (e.g., things that the learner has experience
with narrating in English) and using familiar English expressions require less processing
time for translation. On the other hand, learners using language patterns they already know
may present greater linguistic accuracy as well. With both advantages given, learners may
resort less to direct translation from Chinese and engage a bit more in English. They may
further reduce mistakes in oral production, like lexical collocational errors. Another crucial
implication that may be drawn from our finding on the effect of language for thinking is that
metacognitive skill training should be incorporated into ESL/EFL classrooms. Metacognitive
skill refers to the ‘‘ability to think about thinking...[which] involves being aware of mental
processes, monitoring them and controlling them’’ (Field, 2004, p.178). It is concerned
with ‘‘knowing about learning and controlling learning through planning, monitoring, and
evaluating the learning activity’’ (O’Malley, Chamot, & Küpper, 1989, p.422). Deeming
metacognition an ‘‘executive’’ vehicle, Purpura (1997) also proposed that metacognitive
strategies ‘‘involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking
place, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluative learning after an
activity is completed’’ (cited in Brown, 2000, p. 124). Metacognitive processes therefore help
speakers plan, form, monitor, and evaluate their unshaped or shaped language internally. We
argue for the importance of manipulating metacognitive activities in EFL classroom settings.
For instance, based on the supportive role of language for thinking, instructors can employ
task-based activities that coax learners into using L1 and target language support for inner
speech. We believe that learners controlling their metacognitive skills will more effectively
guide their own speech performance.
Question 2. Oral Elicitation Tasks and Lexical Collocational Errors
The second research question asked whether the nature of oral elicitation task has any
impact on how accurately EFL learners produce lexical collocations in speech. Results revealed
a higher inaccuracy rate in prepared speech than in picture-cued tasks. Still, no significant
task effect of prepared speech and picture-cued tasks on collocational accuracy emerged. This
finding militates against general conclusions drawn by Nakahama et al. (2001) and Young
and Milanovic (1992) that task selection influenced quality of talk. The latter examined the
oral discourse structure of EFL learners and found task selection (e.g., task types) influencing
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quality and quantity, strongly arguing that task has the ‘‘strongest effect of any of the contextual
variables considered’’ (p. 415). Yet task effect in this study did not confirm their research. We
attribute this disagreement to the small number of participants: Only 42 subjects’ data were
collected and compared across three elicitation tasks. If more participants could be recruited,
statistical difference among tasks might be more striking. While the statistical difference across
three tasks was insignificant, the picture description task and comic strip storytelling undeniably
yielded lower inaccuracy rates of lexical collocations, which could be ascribed to linguistic
support of pictorial cues. Learners described what they saw, impelling them to process lowerlevel
knowledge like lexicon and spend more cognitive capacity forming linguistic structures. In
nonpictorial-supported prepared speech, we had supplied them with only a string of words as the
question (word cues) to process both thoughts and language at the same time. This could easily
exceed the maximum cognitive processing load they could handle. When facing this dilemma,
our participants seemingly focused on ideational structures. They possessed less capacity to
work out linguistic structures, which resulted in more collocational errors in prepared speech.
To sum up, although task effect was not significant, comparing the inaccuracy rates in the three
tasks indicates that processing demands of oral elicitation task may influence the quality of talk,
including collocational accuracy.
(Adapted from Hung-ChunWang & Su-Chin Shih. 2011. The Role of Language for
Thinking and Task Selection in EFL Learners’ Oral Collocational Production. Foreign
Language Annals, 4(2), 399–415.)
??Tasks
Read the first paragraph in the results section of the sample reading. Identify
the information elements in each sentence of the paragraph.
Sentences Information Elements
1
2
1
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Sentences Information Elements
3
4
Some verbs can be used to locate the results of the research, such as “show” and
“indicate”. Read the second and third paragraphs in the results section and find the
verbs that the authors used to show the results.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Read the discussion section and match the information elements in the box
with the sentences taken from this section. Put the correct letter before the
corresponding sentence.
a possible explanations for the finding(s)
b. the new finding which is different from previous studies
c. a reference to the main purpose/research questions of the study
d. a review of the most relevant/important finding(s)
e. a comparison between expected results and other studies
f. a summary of the finding(s)
2
3
(Continued)
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UNIT5 Results & Discussion
1) The first research question investigated how learners’ choice of language for
thinking influences lexical collocation production.
2) Statistically significant results revealed that learners primarily using Chinese
mingled with English in thinking had the lowest inaccuracy rate, supporting
the assumption that type of language for thinking directly impacts oral lexical
collocation.
3) This finding accords with Goh’s (2002) assumption that translation as a
cognitive tactic slows down cognitive processing and distracts learners from
some helpful linguistic clues.
4) Another crucial implication that may be drawn from our finding on the effect of
language for thinking is that metacognitive skill training should be incorporated
into ESL/EFL classrooms.
5) This study indicated an interesting finding: Thinking mainly in English was not
beneficial for oral production of lexical collocations, even when learners were at
the advanced level of proficiency.
6) To sum up, although task effect was not significant, comparing the inaccuracy
rates in the three tasks indicates that processing demands of oral elicitation task
may influence the quality of talk, including collocational accuracy.
III Language Focus
A. Comparison and Contrast
When you are writing the results section, you need to do much more than just give data.
What you should always try to do is to convey more information with the data. Comparing
and contrasting is a common way to deal with the data. The purpose of comparison is to
show similarities while contrast is used to show differences. Through comparison or contrast
between two or more things, the reader can understand them better.
Here are some commonly used words and expressions to show comparison or contrast.
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Words and Expressions Showing
Comparison
Words and Expressions Showing
Contrast
like; too; similar to; similarly; both; likewise;
as well as; also; in the same way; have...in
common; the same as
although; yet; whereas; however; but;
while; instead; unlike; unless; be different
from; the reverse; differ; contrary to;
conversely; even though; on the contrary;
on the other hand
Comparison and contrast is often used in graph description. Here are some points for you
to pay special attention to.
First, not all the information has to be compared or contrasted with each other. It is
common to introduce the most significant or important information and compare or contrast
it. If necessary, you must make some calculations before comparing or contrasting the data.
Second, when you compare or contrast information in the graphs, it is not necessary to
lay equal emphasis on every change. Just lay stress on those dramatic changes or on those that
are of special interest to you, or those that you want your readers to pay more attention to and
ignore the less important parts.
Third, the comparison or contrast should be supported by concrete and relevant facts or
data.
??Tasks
The following sentences are taken from the sample reading. Underline the expressions
that are applied to show comparison or contrast.
1) By contrast, if a learner primarily resorts to his or her L1, then oral production in
English will depend on direct translation, causing a great deal of L1 interference at all
linguistic levels.
2) This finding accords with Goh’s (2002) assumption that translation as a cognitive
tactic slows down cognitive processing and distracts learners from some helpful
linguistic clues.
3) Results revealed a higher inaccuracy rate in prepared speech than in picture-cued
tasks.
1
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The following is a result from a market survey of personal computers. Report
the result from a university student’s perspective. First, describe students’ needs
in personal computers. Then compare and contrast the three types of personal
computers. Finally, conclude by stating which computer seems to be the most
suitable for the students’ needs you have described.
A Market Survey of Personal Computers
Types Price (yuan) Hard Disk Screen Size (inch)
PC 1 2,850 500 GB 14
PC 2 6,600 1,000 GB 15.6
PC 3 3,920 1,000 GB 14
Note: PC= personal computer.
2
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B. Cause and Effect
A cause-effect relationship is a relationship in which one event (the cause) makes another
event happen (the effect). In the results and discussion section, the authors need to provide the
reasons/causes for the results/effects, so the cause-effect relationships are commonly shown
here.
In English, we have many approaches to show the cause-effect relationship. For
example:
■ The death rate from cancer is increasing because people are smoking more.
■■ The weather was cold. Therefore, Sally put on her coat.
■■ Many hair problems result from what you eat.
■ The sports meeting was postponed because of/due to the rain.
??Tasks
The following sentences are taken from the sample reading. Underline the
expressions that are applied to show cause or effect.
1) Regarding learner errors, we found 263 incorrect collocations among the 2,491
lexical collocations, resulting in an inaccuracy rate of 10.56.
2) They possessed less capacity to work out linguistic structures, which resulted in more
collocational errors in prepared speech.
Complete the following paragraph by filling in causal words.
Recurring headaches can have initiate disruptive effects in a person’s life. Firstly, in many
cases, these headaches make a person nauseous to the point that he or she must go to bed.
Furthermore, sleep is often interrupted 1) the pain. Disrupted sleep worsens the
physical and emotional state of the sufferer. For those who try to maintain a normal lifestyle,
drugs are often relied on to get through the day. Such drugs, of course, can 2) other
negative effects. Drugs can inhibit productivity on a job, perhaps even 3) regular
absences. Not only is work affected, but the seemingly unpredictable occurrence of these
headaches 4) disruption in family life. The interruption to a person’s family
life is enormous: cancelling plans in the last minute and straining relationships with friends
1
2
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and family. It is no wonder that many of these people feel discouraged and even depressed
5) the cycle of misery reoccurring headaches cause.
IV Academic Writing Skills
A. Describing the Graphic Information
The results section clearly presents the findings of your study. It is usually presented
both in the graph and in the text. First, prepare the graphs as soon as all the data are analyzed
and arrange them in the sequence that best presents your results in a logical way. Then, as
the results section is a text-based section, the description of graphs is of great importance in
paper writing. Good descriptions can help the readers understand your research better while
using a single sentence pattern to describe the statistical and graphic information in a research
paper will make your readers feel too bored and lose interest in reading on. Therefore, you
need to pay more attention to the language use when describing the statistical and graphic
information.
Here we will introduce some useful words, phrases, and sentence patterns which can be
used in different situations of graphic description.
Situations Expressions
When introducing the graphic
information and making a
general statement
The chart shows the percentage of...
The vertical axis shows...
The horizontal axis compares...
When referring to a graph
As can be seen/It can be seen from the graph...
As shown in Graph 3, ...
From the graph above, it may/can be seen/concluded/
shown/estimated/calculated/inferred that...
The graph shows/presents/provides that...
The graph below/The pie chart above shows/
illustrates...
According to Table 1, ...
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Situations Expressions
When describing a graph
There was a minimal/slight/slow/gradual/steady rise.
There was a rapid increase.
There was a(n) marked/large/dramatic/steep/sharp/
abrupt decrease/decline/reduction/fall/drop.
There was a sudden fluctuation.
When describing a curve or a
trend
a gradual/slight increase; a sharp/steep rise; the peak;
a rapid/abrupt fall; a slight dip; no change; slow fall
It shows an upward trend.
It shows a downward trend.
When making a conclusion
to sum up; in conclusion
It appears that...
The two charts clearly show...
The description of graphs is of great importance in paper writing because it can help
the readers understand your research better. Then how do you describe a graph? Here are the
major steps for you to follow:
? Step 1: Introduce the graphic information briefly and indicate the main trend.
Normally it includes the place, the time, the content, and the purpose of the graph.
? Step 2: Describe the relevant and the most important data and make some comparisons
if necessary. Words and expressions for describing a curve or a trend are very useful
in presenting graphic information.
? Step 3: Summarize the data or trends.
If you need to highlight significant data in a table or chart, you may use some adjectives
such as “apparent” “clear” “interesting” “obvious” “revealing” and “significant” to make your
viewpoint known and meanwhile attract readers’ attention. The following sentence patterns
are useful when you report significant results or findings.
■ It is apparent from Table 2 that...
■■ Table 5 is quite revealing in several ways.
■■ From Chart 5 we can see that Experiment 2 resulted in the lowest value of...
(Continued)
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UNIT5 Results & Discussion
■■ What is interesting in this data is that...
■■ In Figure 10, there is a clear trend of decreasing...
■■ As Table 2.1 shows, there was a great difference between the experimental group and
the control group.
■■ As shown in Table 6.3, chunk frequency also has a significant correlation with the
indices of oral proficiency.
■ There was no obvious difference between Method 1 and Method 2.
??Tasks
The following line graph shows an upward trend in the growth rate of Ford car
production in 2018. Analyze the line graph and fulfill the following tasks.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
??%??
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
Octobor
November
December
0.2% 0.3% 1.2%
4.5%
2.8% 2.6%
3.3%
3.1%
4.6%
4.1%
5.5%
6.3%
1) Mark the following positions in the graph.
a. The bottom of the line;
b. The peak of the line;
c. The fluctuating part.
2) Describe the growth rate of Ford car production in the following months respectively.
Try to use the phrases or sentence patterns of graphic description that you learned in
this unit.
a. In January:
b. From March to April:
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c. From May to September:
d. From October to December:
3) What does the overall line graph reveal in the growth rate of Ford car production in 2018?
The following sentences are taken from the sample reading. Underline the
expressions that are applied to highlight the significant data of the research.
1) Descriptive statistics demonstrated that those who mainly thought in their native
language (Mandarin Chinese) produced the highest inaccuracy rate of lexical
collocations (M=15.17), followed by those who primarily thought in English
(M=12.40) and those using a combination (M=8.44).
2) Results of a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) further displayed that the
difference among these three groups reached a significant level, F(2, 39)=4.07,
p<0.05.
3) The LSD test showed that the Chinese-mingled-with-English group had a markedly
lower inaccuracy rate than the Chinese or English groups, while the difference
between the Chinese and English groups was not significant.
4) Statistically significant results revealed that learners primarily using Chinese mingled
with English in thinking had the lowest inaccuracy rate, supporting the assumption
that type of language for thinking directly impacts oral lexical collocation.
5) By contrast, if a learner primarily resorts to his or her L1, then oral production in
English will depend on direct translation, causing a great deal of L1 interference at all
linguistic levels.
B. Strengthening or Weakening a Claim
The discussion section of a research paper focuses on making claims and then adding
support for those claims. What are claims? Claims are statements about ideas and data from
you and other people. Here is an example of a basic claim:
■ An increase in smoking among teenagers caused long-term health problems.
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UNIT5 Results & Discussion
When the proof of your idea or data is clear, you should strengthen your claim. When the
evidence is less certain, you should limit or weaken your claim. Below are some examples of
strengthening or weakening the claim above.
You can add some expressions before or after some parts of the sentence to strengthen
the claim. For example:
■■ increase: a sharp increase
■■ caused: undeniably caused; clearly caused; undoubtedly caused; must have caused...
■ health problems: long-term health problems; widespread long-term health problems
You can also add expressions to the beginning of the sentence. For example:
■ It is clear that an increase...
Here are the possible words for strengthening a claim.
Nouns certainty; evidence
Verbs show; prove; establish; confirm; conclude; determine
Adjectives
key; central; crucial; basic; fundamental; major; principal;
essential; significant
Adverbs
very; pretty; quite; clearly; obviously; undoubtedly; certainly;
indeed; inevitably; invariably; always; literally
Likewise, you can add some expressions before or after some parts of the sentence to
weaken the claim. For example:
■■ increase: a probable increase
■ caused: may have caused; seemed to have caused; contributed to; was one cause of...
Again, you can add expressions to the beginning of the sentence. For example:
■ We have reason to believe that an increase...
■ It is possible that an increase...
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Here are the possible words for weakening a claim.
Verbs appear; argue; doubt; estimate; seen (as); seem; speculate; suggest
Adverbs
largely; likely; mainly; maybe; perhaps; possibly; probably; rather;
relatively; seemingly; somewhat; sometimes
??Tasks
The following sentences are taken from the discussion section of a research
paper. Underline the expressions that are applied to strengthen or weaken
claims. Then mark them in the brackets at the end of each sentence. The first
one is given as an example.
1) We observed borderline statistically significant elevated risks for... (strengthening a
claim)
2) We observed a stronger positive association for... ( )
3) It is possible that the referent group had a smaller-than-expected cancer incidence by
chance. ( )
4) We observed a suggestion of an elevated risk for advanced prostate cancer with both
meat types. ( )
5) In contrast to our findings, childhood leukemia has been positively associated with
intake of processed meats in a case-control study. ( )
6) Associations between saturated fat and cancer are likely to be related to energy
balance in general, whereas iron is thought to contribute to carcinogenesis specifically
by generating free radicals and inducing oxidative stress. ( )
7) This could explain some of the inconsistencies in the literature as most previous
studies have not specifically addressed advanced prostate cancer. ( )
8) It lends strong support to... ( )
9) We found a positive association between red meat intake specifically and cancers of
the esophagus and liver... ( )
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UNIT5 Results & Discussion
The following sentences are taken from the sample reading. Write down the
reasons why the authors weakened the claims.
1) Another crucial implication that may be drawn from our finding on the effect of
language for thinking is that metacognitive skill training should be incorporated into
ESL/EFL classrooms.
2) When facing this dilemma, our participants seemingly focused on ideational
structures.
C. Outlining the Results and Discussion Section
Outlining the results and discussion section is very important because there is much
work to do with the results and data collected. Meanwhile, you need to connect this section
with previous sections to ensure that the results collected are closely related to your research
purpose and research questions.
When you outline the results and discussion section, there are usually four major moves
to follow.
Move 1: Prepare the information.
Before writing the results and discussion section of your research paper, you need to
make everything ready for your writing and ask yourself some questions concerning the
preparation for writing this section. The following steps may be helpful for your preparation.
? Step 1: Review you results and check whether they have answered all the research
questions. Do your results provide answers for your testable hypotheses?
? Step 2: Organize your results in a logical manner, for example, according to priority
of the appearance of research questions. How do you report your results? Do you use
text, tables and/or graphs?
? Step 3: Read the literature review section again. Do your findings agree with what
others have shown? If not, do they suggest an alternative explanation or perhaps an
2
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unforeseen design flaw in your experiment (or theirs)?
? Step 4: Read the introduction section again. Regarding your conclusion, what is your
new understanding of the problem you investigated and outlined in the introduction
section? If warranted, what would be the next step in your study?
This move functions as a reminder and a connector between the method section and the
results section as it provides relevant information for the presentation of results. It provides
a review of issues mentioned in the method section, the location of tables or graphs where
results are displayed, and a general preview of the section. However, it is not obligatory
because not all journal papers include this move in the results section.
Move 2: Report the results.
Move 2 is the core element. It is the move in which the results of a study are presented,
normally with relevant evidence such as statistics and examples. In this move, you need to
select the results which are closely related to your research purpose and research questions.
After that, you need to locate where the results are and clearly describe the findings of the
study both in diagrams and in text.
You may refer to the introduction of describing the graphic information in this unit to get
the skills of graphic description.
Move 3: Comment on the results.
This move serves the purpose of establishing the meaning and significance of
the research results in relation to the relevant field. It includes the information and the
interpretations that go beyond the “objective” results. This can involve how the results can be
interpreted in the context of the study, how the findings contribute to the field (often involving
comparison with related literature), what underlying reasons may account for the results. Also,
comments about the strength, limitations, or generalizability of the results may be added in
the move.
Move 4: Summarize the results and the discussion.
In this move, the major results obtained may be summarized in order to help readers
understand the research better. This move is optional in a research paper due to the limited
length while it is a must for a dissertation or thesis.
After you finish outlining this section, you may pay attention to the following aspects
when writing:
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UNIT5 Results & Discussion
? First, the structure of the results and discussion section and the sequence of the
presentation of the results;
? Second, the choice of the appropriate language style in the results and discussion
section;
? Third, the revision of the draft of your work.
You can present the results and discussion section of your research paper in class, and then
revise it according to the comments and the suggestions from your teacher and classmates.
??Tasks
Work in groups and discuss what other preparations you can make for writing
the results and discussion section of your research paper.
Discuss the following questions with your classmates.
1) Which do you think is the most important move when outlining the results and
discussion section? Why?
2) What attention should be paid to the language style when you write the results and
discussion section?
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Research Conclusion
? To understand the importance of
summarizing in academic writing;
? To be skilled in paraphrasing in
academic writing;
? To be able to restate your thesis
statement;
? To be able to write a logical
conclusion.
6 UNIT
Learning Objectives
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I Warm-up
In research papers, the conclusion section is a most valuable part. All the material that
you have collected means nothing to readers until you present the conclusion as a result of
your research. Conclusion is usually a brief section of academic texts which normally serves
the following functions. The first is to summarize and bring together the main areas covered
in the writing, which might be called “looking back”. The second is to analyze and evaluate
your main points for readers. In addition, you have to point out the general implications
and possible limitations of your research in the conclusion. Finally, your conclusion may
also include making suggestions for improvement and speculating on future directions. It
manifests the value of your research as well as your understanding of the material that you
have presented. It should be a strong recapitulation of your major points. But never add a new
idea just because you have thought of it at the end!
II Sample Reading
Parental Phenol Exposure and Spontaneous Abortion in Chinese
Population Residing in the Lower Reach of Yangtze River
Conclusion
By examining the relationships between a wide range of phenols widely used and
spontaneous abortion, we found that paternal PCP exposure and maternal exposure to 4-n-OP
and AP(s) were positively associated with spontaneous abortion. This study provided the first
human data on the associations between both parental exposure to environmental phenols and
spontaneous abortion. Although the adverse effect of maternal OP exposure on spontaneous
abortion has not been well studied in humans, post-implantation embryonic loss caused by OP
exposure during early pregnancy has been identified in rats. Some possible causes contribute
to the relationships we observed between OP and AP(s) exposure and risk of spontaneous
abortion. Besides, OP and NP possess higher endocrine-disruption potency and can easily
pass through the placenta. Therefore, it may cause spontaneous abortion by affecting steroid
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UNIT6 Research Conclusion
receptors responsible for fetal programming on growth and immune function. Moreover, OP
and NP may also cause spontaneous abortion by adversely affecting the reproduction and
embryonic developmental stages through mitotic anomalies. In this study, a strong correlation
between AP(s) (exposure to at least one of the two APs including 4-n-OP and 4-n-NP) and
spontaneous abortion was observed, suggesting no maternal AP exposure may significantly
decrease the risk of spontaneous abortion. In addition, experiments demonstrated that PCP
could cause chromosome aberrations, DNA damage, and mutations. Thus, it is biologically
plausible that paternal PCP exposure may increase the risk of spontaneous abortion by causing
chromosome aberrations or impairing sperm quality.
The strengths of this study are the use of internal exposure estimation about various
environmental phenols and simultaneous determination of both maternal and paternal
exposure to phenols. The major limitations of our study are the relatively small sample size
and its cross-sectional design which restricts the ability to make causal conclusion. Because
biological samples (urine) of study population were required, the hospital-based design
was selected. In fact, hospital controls may not be completely representative of the study
population because it is not a random sample from all the target population. To address this
limitation, we have restricted the study population to registered Nanjing residents, and the
recruited controls were from the same hospital from which the cases originated. In order to
further control the effect of potentially confounding factors, we included the variables which
were statistically different between the case and control individuals as adjusted variables
including paternal smoking, maternal BMI, and alcohol use. When compared with a random
sample from all the target population, a hospital-based control might have underestimated the
actual effects to some unknown extent. We recommend that further investigation is needed to
elucidate the mechanisms linking paternal exposure to PCP, maternal exposure to 4-n-OP and
AP(s) with spontaneous abortion.
(Adapted from Chen, X. J. et al. 2013. Parental Phenol Exposure and Spontaneous Abortion
in Chinese Population Residing in the Lower Reach of Yangtze River. Chemosphere, 93: 217–222.)
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??Tasks
Read the conclusion section of the sample reading to identify the information
elements in the following table. Then discuss their functions.
Information Elements Relevant Details
Summary of the argument
Major findings of the research
Implications of the research
Limitations of the research
Recommendations for further research
What verb tenses are mainly used in this conclusion section? Which one is
predominant in this section, the active voice or the passive voice? Why?
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2
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UNIT6 Research Conclusion
III Language Focus
A. Summarizing
There are three ways to include source material in academic writing: summarizing,
paraphrasing, and quoting. Each of these strategies capitalizes on different types of
information that can be useful. To summarize is to bring out in your own words a shortened
version of written or spoken material, stating the main points and leaving out anything that
is not essential. Summarizing is more than retelling; it involves analyzing information,
distinguishing important elements from unimportant ones and transforming large chunks of
information into a few short cohesive sentences. Look at the following example:
■ Original: This effort to communicate—first through spoken messages, then through
pictographs, then through the written word, and finally through printed words—
demonstrates people’s innate desire to share information with one another. Storability,
portability, and accessibility of information are essential to today’s concept of mass
communication. (Shirley Biagi. Media Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media, 2nd
edition, p. 24 )
■ Summary: In Media Impact, Shirley Biagi explains that people have always had
an inherent need to communicate. The ability to store, carry, and have access to
information is necessary in modern mass communication.
There are several techniques to be used when summarizing a text and they all stress full
understanding of a text and require readers to spot the main points in it. Here are some useful
tips for summarizing:
? Start by reading a short text and highlight the main points as you read;
? Read the text again and make notes of the main points, leaving out examples,
evidence, etc;
? Restate or repeat the main points by using different words and phrases;
? Do not add your own ideas, opinions, or judgment of the arguments;
? Make it shorter than the original version.
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??Tasks
Read the following paragraph and write a summary of it.
I come from India, but I have lived in Canada for several years now. I am surprised at
how Canadian society respects the rights of women, both at work and at home. Personally I
believe women in Canada are better off than women in India. However, some of my female
friends in Canada miss the good old days when women were treated in a different way. You
see, in the past, gentlemen followed different rules of behavior. They would open the doors
for ladies, pull out chairs for ladies to sit down, stand up when a lady left the table, and offer
to pay the bill at restaurants. Now, however, most Canadians believe that men and women
should be considered equal. For example, women now generally have to pay for their own
meals.
Read the following original paragraph and different summaries of it. Then
decide which is the acceptable one and why.
Original: Most medical people despised the press, holding attitudes not totally
unfamiliar today. Reporters tended to be suckers for every quack, half-quack, over-eager
scientist, or naive country doctor who thought he had a serum to cure tuberculosis, a herbal
remedy for cancer, or a new surgical procedure to rejuvenate the aged. When the newspapers
were not wasting space on undeserving medical stories, they were over-playing legitimate
news, getting their facts wrong, and generally making a nuisance of themselves interfering in
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2
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UNIT6 Research Conclusion
the lives and practices of busy professionals. Doctors’ deep suspicion of what they read in the
newspapers and even in the less-carefully edited medical journals helps to explain some of the
early skepticism about insulin in countries like Britain: Oh, the Americans are always curing
everything; this week it’s diabetes. Even in Canada and the United States it was some months
before there was enough confirmation of the unlikely news from Toronto to convince wire
services and the more skeptical doctors and editors that insulin was, indeed, the real thing.
(Michael Bliss. The Discovery of Insulin. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1982. Chapter 8,
Section I, Paragraph 1, Page 190)
Summary 1: Most medical people hated the press, because reporters tended to believe
every over-eager scientist or naive country doctor who thought he had a cure for something.
Newspapers often over-played legitimate news, got their facts wrong, and interfered in the
lives and practices of busy professionals. Doctors became deeply suspicious of what they
read in the newspapers and less-carefully edited medical journals, therefore were skeptical
about insulin in countries like Britain because it seemed the Americans were always curing
everything.
Summary 2: Most medical people hated the press, because reporters tended to believe
every “over-eager scientist or naive country doctor” (p. 190) who thought he had a cure
for something. Newspapers often over-played legitimate news, got their facts wrong, and
interfered “in the lives and practices of busy professionals” (p. 190). Doctors became deeply
suspicious of what they read in the newspapers and less carefully edited medical journals,
therefore were skeptical about insulin in countries like Britain because it seemed the
Americans were “always curing everything” (p. 190).
Summary 3: Insulin as a treatment for diabetes was not widely accepted as “the real
thing” (p. 190) by the medical profession for many months after “the unlikely news from
Toronto” (p. 190). Doctors had become skeptical about the legitimacy of medical discoveries
as reported both by newspapers, which tended to waste space on “undeserving medical
stories” (p. 190), and by some less professional medical journals.
Summary 4: Insulin as a treatment for diabetes was not widely accepted for many
months because doctors had become skeptical about the legitimacy of medical discoveries as
reported both by newspapers and by some less professional medical journals (p. 190).
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B. Paraphrasing
The Oxford English Dictionary defines a paraphrase as “an expression in other words,
usually fuller and clearer, of the sense of any passage or text; a free rendering or amplification of
a passage....[Paraphrasing is] to express the meaning of (a word, phrase, passage) in other words,
usually with the object of fuller and clearer exposition so as to bring out the sense” (XI: 204). To
paraphrase means to completely reproduce the original meaning in your own words (but never
include your own opinion). Look at the following example and a paraphrase about it:
■ Original: Aggressiveness, present in many male teenagers, has often been characterized
as having a biological base. However, social study theorists Bandura and Walters (1959)
did a study which indicated that aggressiveness might be a product of environment
factors and especially, social reinforcement. In this study, they found that aggressive boys
had encouragement from their parents to be aggressive outside their home. Since their
fathers experienced vicarious gratification from hearing about their son’s aggressive
behavior, this provided reinforcement for the boys. (Cong, 2009, p. 337)
■ Paraphrase: Social scientists have often described aggressiveness, which is evident
in many adolescent boys, as having a biological component. However, the research
completed by social study theorists Bandura and Walters (1959) showed that
aggressiveness might result from factors in the environment and, in particular, social
reinforcement. It was found in the study that young males who were aggressive had
been encouraged by their parents to be aggressive away from their home. Their
fathers received indirect pleasure from learning of their son’s aggressive behavior.
Consequently, the boys’ behavior was reinforced by their fathers’ experience.
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UNIT6 Research Conclusion
There are basically two ways of paraphrasing: by making word-level transformations
(and maintaining the original syntax) or by considering its “deep structure” and making more
significant changes. Note how the following two versions of paraphrase differ:
■ Original: The temperature in many parts of the world is gradually rising.
■■ Paraphrase 1: The temperature in lots of places around the earth is slowly increasing.
■ Paraphrase 2: Most parts of the world are getting hotter steadily.
The first version represents a word-level paraphrase and the second version is a deeplevel
transformation. It is usually believed that making word-level paraphrases is easier than
deep-level transformations.
Here are some guidelines for paraphrasing:
? Use synonyms;
? Change word forms;
? Make necessary structural adjustments;
? Change between the affirmative and the negative;
? Include references to the original source.
??Task
Read the following paragraph and try to paraphrase it.
Starting in the 15th century, the reality and the idea of the family were to change: a
slow and profound revolution, scarcely distinguished by either contemporary observers or
later historians, and difficult to recognize. And yet the essential event is quite obvious: the
extension of school education. We have seen how in the middle ages children’s education was
ensured by apprenticeship in adults, and that after the age of seven, children lived in families
other than their own. Henceforth, on the contrary, education became increasingly a matter for
the school. The school ceased to be confined to clerics and became the normal instrument of
social initiation, of progress from childhood to manhood. (Aries, P. Centuries of Childhood: A
Social History of Family Life. 1962)
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IV Academic Writing Skills
A. Using Sentence Patterns
The italicized patterns and expressions in the following sentences are often used in
writing conclusions. Try to use them in your own writing.
■ This paper has demonstrated that the factors influencing the choice of both forms of
direct address and terms of reference in a historical material can be measured by using
present-day theoretical tools.
■■ We have shown how the quotient graph can be used to reduce model checking of TA to the
untimed case, so that classical finite-state system verification techniques can be applied.
■■ It was notable that the non-feedback control group was more successful in finding and
correcting word choice errors than any other error category.
■■ We have examined the relationship between students’ self-assessments of their own
writing problems, their preferences about error correction, and their prior knowledge
about specific grammatical problems and the texts they produced.
■■ In this paper, we proposed an idea of role in the interaction of web services. On its basis, we can
effectively check whether two or more web services are compatible in collaboration or not.
■■ Experimental results obtained by applying minim on a number of examples have shown that
our approach is both general and practical. Reach ability analysis is still preferable for simple
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UNIT6 Research Conclusion
properties such as invariant or bounded response.
■■ Much work needs to be done to make these algorithms more efficient in practice.
■■ By examining primarily a controlled experimental feedback treatment, the present
study obviously has its limits. But it provides specific evidence that can help teachers
weigh some of their feedback options carefully. Clearly, it also raises further questions
for future investigations on this topic. It is to be hoped that researchers will continue to
pursue this research agenda for the benefit of teachers and students alike.
■■ Several implications for future research work are suggested by the findings, some of
which are in response to the limitations of this study.
■■ After all, the bound for the grid size that we require is indeed very small. We hope that
there is room for some improvement.
??Task
Complete the following conclusion by translating the Chinese in the brackets
into English.
As a matter of fact, we only considered the compatibility and substitutability between
two Web services. 1) ( 当涉及更多网络
服务器时), it will be more complex and need more research. We also assume that messages
communicate in a synchronous way. Reasoning on asynchronous communications raises very
subtle problems and is 2) (不幸的
是往往不可断定), which means that automated tools are submitted to severe restrictions.
3) ( 另外一个研究方向是)
that when two Web services are not compatible, it is natural to “do something” to
correct the flaws in their interaction. Several authors have proposed some possibilities,
4) ( 但这个问题仍
应进一步研究).
B. Restating the Research Objective
In the conclusion section, you need to restate your thesis statement. You should avoid
repeating the thesis statement, otherwise your conclusion may sound boring or repetitive.
Using a thesaurus is a good way to find new, interesting expressions. For example:
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■ This study set out to determine...
■■ The present study was designed to determine the effect of...
■■ In this investigation, the aim was to assess...
■■ The purpose of the current study was to determine...
■■ This project was undertaken to design...and evaluate...
■ Returning to the hypothesis/question posed at the beginning of this study, it is now
possible to state that...
Here are examples of research question and concluding statement:
■ Research question: What is more important: competitive price, fuel economy, or high
resale value when Chinese people buy cars?
■ Concluding statement: The research set out to determine what factors contribute
more to Chinese people’s decision when purchasing cars: competitive price, fuel
economy, or high resale value.
??Task
Write concluding statements based on the following research questions.
1) What in San Francisco attracts visitors more: the magnificent location, the theaters
and art galleries, or the fine restaurants?
2) Do employees need to be trained for working in the Australian multicultural
workplace? But managers also need to be trained.
3) What is the 2014 rate of juvenile delinquency in the U.S.?
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UNIT6 Research Conclusion
4) Does education play a role in reducing juvenile delinquents’ return to crime?
5) What marketing strategies does the Coca-Cola company currently apply?
6) Do children sent to daycare or preschool start kindergarten with more highly
developed language skills?
7) How might the discovery of a genetic basis for obesity change the way in which we
treat obese persons, both medically and socially?
C. Writing a Conclusion Section
The following are the points for attention in preparing the conclusion section:
? Be careful not to draw conclusions from data involving errors of observation;
? Do not use mathematical formulas without clear understanding of the derivations and
all the assumptions involved;
? Avoid confusing facts with opinions of influences, not only in the investigation itself
but also in preparing results for publication;
? Do not draw a conclusion from too few data, or too broad a conclusion that is based
on extrapolated curves;
? Guard against failing to qualify a conclusion, in order to show the limits within which
it applies, or the variation which is to be expected;
? When you indulge in a speculation, be sure to remind your reader that it remains a
speculation.
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??Task
Write a conclusion section based on the following discussion section of a paper.
The current research documented the impact of interventions designed to strengthen
children’s environmental identities through a case study approach involving a 5th grade class
by examining strategies effective at enhancing children’s relationship with the natural world.
Data from written reflections and interviews with children and their teacher created specific
positive impacts of the program on children’s environmental identities and quantitative
data supported these findings. This discussion focuses on identifying effective practices
and addressing the ways these practices may have been particularly effective at impacting
children’s environmental identities. Finally, it considers the relationship between efforts to
improve children’s environmental identities and school science.
What intervention elements at the Center impacted children’s environmental identities?
The intervention included several strategies that seemed to be particularly significant in
impacting children’s environmental identities. These included locating the program in a
natural outdoor setting, specifically addressing children’s comfort in the natural world,
providing time for shared reflections of feelings about nature, incorporating free-choice
learning opportunities with simple activities, and fostering social interactions between
children as well as between the children and their adult leaders, including their classroom
teacher. It was critical that the intervention to strengthen children’s environmental identities
took place in the outdoors. By locating the program in the outdoors, children had opportunities
for direct contact with the natural world, enabling them to see, feel, touch, smell, hear, and
appreciate the life around them, which was important in helping them develop positive
feelings about nature as well as foster their interest in the organisms they encountered. The
shared experiences in the outdoors also served as an anchor for the teacher and children to
connect science in their classroom with science in the natural world. The teacher, realizing the
benefits of the outdoors for the children after witnessing their interactions there, expressed a
desire to relocate some instruction outdoors and sought to grant funding to the Center after the
conclusion of the study. This study suggests that a teacher’s intent to situate science learning
in the outdoors may be influenced by students’ interaction with the natural world as well as
coming to understand the importance they place on their relationship with nature.
How does an intervention designed to strengthen children’s connection to nature impact
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UNIT6 Research Conclusion
children’s interest in school science? If children saw their experience at the Center as distinct
from their experience of school science, why did the intervention increase children’s interest
in school science? The increased interest in science was documented qualitatively and
supported by increased mean science interest scores in the intervention group. However, it is
important to acknowledge that the quantitatively measured increase in science interest in the
intervention group was not statistically significant. It is possible that this measurement was
limited by the small size of the intervention group, by the low number of visits to the Center,
or by a ceiling effect.
The opportunity to explore science interest in the natural world, outside the science
classroom but still as part of a school enterprise, may have expanded children’s vision of what
science at school could be. It helped the teacher make connections between the science they
were learning in school and the natural world they experienced at the Center.
Based on the interviews with children, another possible explanation may account for
observation of children’s increased interest in science at school. The opportunities to be
outside in nature, such as making observation, discussing feelings, and reflecting upon their
experiences in the natural world in the social context of their class may have allowed children
who had relatively silent feelings and interest in nature to share these with the class in a way
that they were outwardly appreciated by the classroom teacher as well as by peers. Physically
being outside in a learning situation changed how some children were viewed by both the
teacher and other children partly because being outside freed many children from the stress
they felt in science classroom. Discussions of feelings about the natural world changed how
some children viewed themselves in relation to the natural world, especially their comfort
levels and concern for the organisms at the Center. These changing feelings may have had
the effect of strengthening children’s environmental identities in the context of schooling,
possibly improving their interest in school science.
Children’s environmental identities are partly determined by their feelings about
the natural world (Kals & Ittner, 2003). Researchers have suggested that neglecting the
way children feel about the natural world may contribute to their alienation from school
science (Cobern, 2000; Hammond, 2001). Though time constraints often limit science in
elementary classrooms (Carrier et al, 2013), it can be specially important to address children’s
environmental identities at the elementary level, given the long-term goal of abating children’s
declining interest in science as they approach middle school.
Because of their interest in the natural world, it seems that children with strong
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environmental identities ought to be among our most interested science students. But
sometimes they are not (Calabrese & Yang, 2000). The present research reveals several
strategies used by environmental educators that hold potential for strengthening children’s
environmental identities as well as their interest in school science. The strategies include:
relocating some instruction outdoors, particularly in natural settings; incorporating free-choice
learning opportunities into science instruction; allowing for time and opportunities for social
interaction; addressing children’s comfort levels in the natural world, and giving children a
chance to discuss and reflect upon their feelings about the natural world within the context of
a school science experience. In this study, these strategies seemed to foster children’s interest
in science. Perhaps this is a step toward pursuing more scientific information over the course
of their lifetime.
Abstract &
Documentation
? To understand the elements and
features of an abstract;
? To become aware of the use of verbs
and tenses in an abstract;
? To learn how to provide keywords in
an abstract;
? To understand reference styles;
? To write an abstract and create a
reference list.
7 UNIT
Learning Objectives
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I Warm-up
Before you learn the detailed steps to write an abstract, please think about the following
questions:
? Where can you find an abstract in a thesis or dissertation?
? What is the purpose of writing an abstract?
? What are the basic elements for an academic abstract?
? What language problems may you have in abstract writing? (For example, the
wording problem, the tense problem, the voice problem, etc.)
II Sample Reading
The Self-Promotion of Academic Textbooks in the Preface Section:
A Genre Analysis
Abstract: This paper presents a genre analysis of the preface section in academic
textbooks, specifically twenty-two preface sections from the closely-related fields
of linguistics and applied linguistics. With the adoption of the move structure analysis
proposed by Swales (1990) and Bhatia (1993), four moves were identified to account for the
different rhetorical purposes employed by writers of preface sections to create a niche and
establish the importance of their textbooks. These moves comprise: establishing the needs
of the readership, establishing their orientations like purpose and audiences, outlining of the
scope of the chapters, and finally acknowledgments. This move structure reflects the textual
strategies used by writers to achieve the rhetorical purposes of the preface sections. It is
suggested that these findings could be incorporated into instructional literature for writers
wishing to start book projects, and that they may also be helpful for English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) teachers in selecting materials for their classrooms based on their external
evaluation of academic textbooks.
Keywords: genre; preface; move; textual strategies; rhetorical purposes
(Adapted from Azar, A. S. 2012. The Self-Promotion of Academic Textbooks in the
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Preface Section: A Genre Analysis. Atlantis-Journal of the Spanish Association of Anglo-
American Studies, 30(2), 147–165.)
??Tasks
What is the most suitable subject for the sample abstract?
a. Computer Science
b. Civil Engineering
c. Applied Linguistics
d. Chemistry Industry
Answer the following questions based on the sample abstract.
1) How was the study carried out?
2) What did the study find?
3) What is the use of the findings?
Match the information elements of an abstract in the box with the following
sentences taken from the sample abstract.
a. background b. objective c. materials d. approach
e. findings f. conclusion g. implication h. limitation
1) This paper presents a genre analysis of the preface section in academic
textbooks, specifically twenty-two preface sections from the closely-related
fields of linguistics and applied linguistics.
2) With the adoption of the move structure analysis proposed by Swales (1990) and
1
2
3
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Bhatia (1993), four moves were identified to account for the different rhetorical
purposes employed by writers of preface sections to create a niche and establish
the importance of their textbooks. These moves comprise: establishing the needs
of the readership, establishing their orientations like purpose and audiences,
outlining of the scope of the chapters, and finally acknowledgments.
3) This move structure reflects the textual strategies used by writers to achieve the
rhetorical purposes of the preface sections.
4) It is suggested that these findings could be incorporated into instructional
literature for writers wishing to start book projects, and that they may also be
helpful for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in selecting materials
for their classrooms based on their external evaluation of academic textbooks.
Look at the keywords in the sample abstract and decide what categories they
belong to.
Keywords Categories
genre
preface
move
textual strategies
rhetorical purposes
4
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III Language Focus
Verbs, Sentence Patterns, and Verb Tenses
In writing an abstract, verbs, sentence patterns, and verb tenses should be considered
carefully. The following two tables demonstrate some good points that you can refer to when
writing an abstract. Table 7-1 presents verbs and sentence patterns and Table 7-2 is related to
verb tenses.
Table 7-1 Verbs and Sentence Patterns in an Abstract
Information
Elements Verbs Sentence Patterns
Background
originate,
provide,
summarize,
review,
...
The theory comes/stems/emerges/originates from...
The theory is obtained from...
Objective
develop,
explain,
address,
aim,
attempt,
...
This paper develops a theoretical framework to...
This report/thesis/presentation...explains/outlines/
summaries/evaluates/surveys/develops/investigates/
discusses/focuses on...the results of...
Research
focus(es)
present,
discover,
include,
study,
...
The chief aim/main purpose/primary object/major
objective/ principal goal of the study is to present...
The main purpose of this essay is to discover...
Research
process
examine,
conduct,
analyze,
discuss,
consider,
investigate,
...
Firstly, ...was examined..., and then, the experiment on...
was conducted.
After...was analyzed, the results were discussed.
Before the questionnaire was designed, ...must be
considered.
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Information
Elements Verbs Sentence Patterns
Methods
observe,
collect,
estimate,
calculate,
measure,
...
The curative effect/sensitivity/function of certain drug/kit/
organ was observed/detected/studied.
The experiment was designed to collect the data on...
Research
results
show,
present,
indicate,
demonstrate,
illustrate,
imply,
...
It has been found/observed/proved/shown that...
These experiments indicate/reveal/show/demonstrate that...
The approach/method/framework promises to be...
The results show/indicate/suggest that...
It is shown/concluded/proposed that...
This could imply that...
These studies are of significance to...
These results have direct application to...
Conclusion
summarize,
introduce,
conclude,
...
This article summarizes...
The experiment has introduced...
This causes/results in/leads to/brings about/gives rise to...
The data leads us to a conclusion that...
The data enables us to conclude that...
Table 7-2 Verb Tenses in an Abstract
Types of Information Verb Tenses Examples
Giving background
details
The simple present tense
The industry is already well
known for its eff o r t s t o
improve the eco-efficiency of
its processes.
Describing research
activities
The simple past tense; the
present perfect tense (sometimes
the simple present tense according
to the journal’s requirements)
The study focused on two
main areas.
The framework for life cycle
analysis has been developed.
(Continued)
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Types of Information Verb Tenses Examples
Describing methods
The simple past tense (active
or passive) (sometimes the
simple present tense according
to the journal’s requirements)
We carried out a series of field
tests.
A large number of samples
were tested for fracturing.
Reporting results
The simple past tense
(sometimes the simple present
tense according to the journal’s
requirements)
Results indicated that the
problem is even more serious
than previously predicted.
The third model proved to be
more durable than the other
four.
Stating conclusions The simple present tense
This indicates that there are, in
fact, several factors contributing
to the decrease.
It appears that the incidence
of human error cannot be
eliminated at any stage.
There might be a need for
revising the list of criteria
within the next 5–10 years.
??Tasks
Read the sample abstract and find out the verbs and the sentence patterns. An
example has been given for you.
Abstract: The electrical and piezo-resistive responses of recycled carbon fiber (RCF)-
reinforced concrete are analyzed in this article. Two different PAN-based RCFs (monofilament
RCF and fibrillated RCF sheets) incorporated into dry concrete mix were investigated. Piezoresistivity
was evaluated by simultaneously monitoring the variation in the applied DC voltage
during both flexural and compressive tests. Although both plain and RCF-reinforced concrete
samples showed piezo-resistive responses, the latter showed increased signal-to-noise ratio
and thus behaved like self-sensing materials. The electrical behavior suggests a mixed control
owing to both ionic and electronic conductivity, with the dominant one depending on the RCF
1
(Continued)
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content and RCF dispersion. This work enhances the possibility of generalizing the use of
smart cementitious materials in the civil engineering industry.
Keywords: reinforced concrete; piezo-resistivity; electronic conductivity; smart
cementitious materials
(Adapted from Segura, I., Faneca, G., et al. 2019. Self-Sensing Concrete Made from
Recycled Carbon Fibers. Smart Materials and Structures, 28(10).)
Verbs Sentence Patterns
analyze ... are analyzed...
Read the abstract above again and check the verb tenses in it.
Information
Elements Verb Tenses Examples
Background
Methods
2
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Information
Elements Verb Tenses Examples
Results
Conclusion
Significance
IV Academic Writing Skills
A. Preparing for Writing an Abstract
Now that you have learned about the information elements, verb tenses, sentence
patterns, and keywords for an abstract, it seems that you have made a good preparation for
writing an abstract and it is high time that you should write one. However, there must be a
concrete process when you write an abstract.
??Task
Rearrange the following statements to form a reasonable process of writing an
abstract.
1) Identify the major results from the discussion or results section.
2) Check to see if it meets the guidelines of the targeted journal.
3) Identify the major objectives and conclusions.
4) Remove extra words and phrases.
5) Identify phrases with keywords in the method section.
6) Assemble the above information into a single paragraph in a right information
(Continued)
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order with appropriate verbs, tenses, and sentence patterns.
7) Give the abstract to a colleague (preferably one who is not familiar with your
work) and ask him/her whether it makes sense.
8) Revise the paragraph so that the abstract conveys only the essential information.
B. Outlining an Abstract
When outlining an abstract, you should include five major information elements, namely
background, research objective, methods, results, and conclusion.
??Task
The following paper is finished without an abstract and keywords. Read the
paper and find the related statements to fill in the table that follows the paper.
Study on the Network-Based English Phonetics Teaching Mode
for English-Major Students
1. Introduction
With the development of Information Technology, the Internet is accessible to all,
especially to the students. Based on the network, English teaching is changing greatly, which
is not simply with textbooks, chalk and blackboard, but with multimedia, various apps and
other digital tools. For English-major students, the network-based teaching mode is playing a
more important role, especially for the teaching of English phonetics.
In terms of nature and function, language is a system of code combining sound and meaning
with speech sound as the material shell, vocabulary as the building block, and grammar as the
structure law. Teaching of English-major students inevitably involves the teaching of phonetics.
The wide use of multimedia technology has changed the situation of “dumb English” teaching
which stresses grammar more than pronunciation. With the traditional class teaching, students
are passive to listen and the teachers are teaching orally in class. However, the limitation of
teachers’ inaccuracy of pronunciation leads to the students’ errors in pronunciation. Moreover, the
students have less time to be corrected in time. The positive effect of computer-aided technology,
multimedia-aided teaching technology, and the artificial intelligence-aided teaching technique used
in English teaching has been verified by relevant scholars, but a number of researchers are still
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reforming and applying the network-based English teaching mode. Under the use of Information
Technology, the trend of reforming in English teaching mode is inevitable to happen. The creation
of a new teaching mode is one of the ways to the reform of English teaching.
The network-based English phonetics-teaching mode for English-major students can
help the students learn better in English pronunciation than those who learn in the traditional
mode. Thus, the current researchers studied the steps of the network-based teaching mode,
the effectiveness of the network-based teaching mode, and selected the English-major college
students of 2017 in Anhui Institute of Information Technology as the subjects of the teaching
experiment to show the significance of the model.
2. Network-based Teaching Mode
The teaching mode is the theme of education. The network-based teaching mode which
focuses on net learning is a reform to the traditional teaching mode. With the advantages, it is
possible to achieve more effectiveness in teaching.
2.1 Theoretical Basis of Network-Based Teaching Mode
Constructivism is the theory proposed by cognitive psychologist Piaget who believed that
teaching should be centered on the students. Students are becoming the active participants of the
class instead of passive indoctrinators of knowledge. Teachers need to change to counsel students,
to help and instruct learning instead of teaching knowledge. For constructivism, in the process of
learning, the students’ learning resources have been enlarged beyond textbooks, and the relationship
involved in the teaching has been changed from one-way indoctrination to multi-directional
interaction, interdependence, inter-conversion, teacher-student interaction, student-student interaction,
and human-computer interaction. Obviously, the network-based English phonetics teaching mode
provides an environment conforming to the constructivism theory and taking students as the center.
...
3. Experiment Design and Data Analysis
With the development of the society and the rapid growth of international integration,
higher education meets the challenges greatly. As college teachers, we need to improve
to meet the requirements brought by the rapid development. We should not only use the
traditional teaching mode, but also use the network-based teaching mode to teach the
students. Thus, the assessment of the network-based teaching mode is used in Anhui Institute
of Information Technology. The authors implement the experiment through questionnaire
investigations and data analysis to show the hypothesis that the network-based teaching mode
can benefit students better than the traditional teaching mode.
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3.1 Experiment Subjects
The experiment uses the English-major college students of 2017 from Anhui Institute of
Information Technology as subjects. The total number of the students is 78 who are placed
in two classes. Table 1 is the information about background and learning time. Table 2 is the
one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the average entrance score.
Table 1 Basic Information Between the Experiment Class and the Control Class
Size of Class Average
Entrance Score
Weekly Extracurricular Speaking
and Reading Time
Experiment
class
38 105.5 1.3
Control class 40 106.7 1.5
Total 78 106.1 1.4
From Table 1 we can see that the two classes are similar in some ways. The size of the
class, the average entrance score (total of 150), and the weekly extracurricular speaking and
reading time are similar to each other for the two classes.
Table 2 One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on the Average Entrance Score
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F P-value
Between groups 26.844 1 26.844
Within groups 9047.874 76 119.051 0.225 0.636
Total 9074.718 77
To get the one-way ANOVA on the average entrance score, the statistical software
(SPSS) is used. From Table 2, we can see that F=0.225<1, p=0.636>0.05, which shows that
little obvious difference exists in the two classes. As for this, we can have the experiment
continued and look forward to the result of significant differences.
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3.2 Experiment Process
The learning requirements for the experiment class and the control class are different.
For the experiment class, the students are assigned to preview the lessons on the net, including
watching the videos of English pronunciation, seeing the film of English version and dubbing
the cartoons and TV plays in English. After finishing the assignments, the students should
send the dubbing to the teachers by QQ or e-mail. In the class, the teacher delivers the theory
in English pronunciation, let the students practice the pronunciation, and correct the incorrect
pronunciation of the students. The teacher can also use the net in the class through multimedia
to let the students dub the native speakers by groups. Thus, the teacher is the tutor in the class
to instruct the pronunciation of the students, and the students are the center to do the exercises
and practice of the pronunciation. After class, the students are asked to review the lessons on
the net and finish the tasks assigned by the teachers through e-mail or BBS. The following
figures give the examples of the experiment class teaching based on the net. Figure 1 is the
assignments checking. Figure 2 shows the new points in learning the lessons.
Figure 1 shows that the teacher can check the assignments of dubbing through
multimedia by clicking the start button and the students can dub the short video. This use of
video can stimulate the students’ interests in learning English phonetics, and through dubbing
and imitating the native speakers, the students can speak English more effectively. After
checking the assignments, the teacher uses a short time to illustrate the rules in pronunciation
of the new knowledge, which is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1 Dubbing the Short Video
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Figure 2 New Points of the Lesson
Figure 2 indicates that the consonant [m] is taught. In the PowerPoint, the teacher lists
the rules in pronunciation and the classification of [m]. With the picture and the rules, the
students can understand the pronunciation well and pronounce it correctly. After that the
students will have more opportunities to practice the newly acquired knowledge.
On the other hand, the students in the control class have their lessons in the traditional
classroom, with the teachers delivering lessons through textbooks, and blackboard and chalk.
The assignments done by the students cannot be monitored by the teachers after class, but
only in class. The teachers check the pronunciation homework in class and correct them
within the short class period.
Meanwhile, questionnaires and investigation have been used to testify the attitude and
learning autonomy of using the network-based teaching mode for the experiment class at both
the beginning and the end of the semester in Anhui Institute of Information Technology. The
investigations are aimed to measure ordinal variables to measure attitudes. At the end of the
semester, the same examination of reading phonetic symbols, words, phrases, sentences, and
paragraphs is conducted to testify whether the experiment class does better than the control
class. Moreover, statistical software (SPSS) is used to collect and summarize data efficiently
to get meaningful information and enhance the validity of the collected data.
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3.3 Experiment Results
In order to find out the results of network-based teaching mode, the questionnaire is used.
There are 6 questions. Questions 1 to 3 are used to ascertain the purpose, the average time, and
the study scope of the students for using the net, which aims to get the information on students’
learning autonomy. Questions 4 to 6 are used to ascertain the acceptance, the effectiveness, and
the recommendation of net learning, which aims to get the information on students’ attitude
toward the network-based teaching mode. Thirty-eight questionnaire forms are distributed
and collected, and all are valid. Table 3 shows the result of Questions 1 to 3. Table 4
presents the result of Questions 4 to 6.
Table 3 Results from the Questionnaire for the Information of Students’ Learning Autonomy
Item
Purpose of
Using Net (%)
Average Time
Online per Week
(%)
Scope of Study
Online (%)
Study Amusement Others Zero 5–8 hrs ＞ 8
hrs
English Chinese Others
Beginning 21.1 55.3 23.6 13.2 63.2 23.6 30.4 60.5 21.1
End 65.8 18.4 15.8 0.0 71.1 28.9 80.9 10.5 5.3
From Table 3 we can see that at the beginning of the semester, most of the students use
net for amusement and only 21.1% of the students use it for study. However, at the end of the
semester, most of the students use the net to learn, which accounts for 65.8%. Students using
the net to study increase by 44.7%. As to the average time of the students at the beginning of
the semester, 13.2% of the students do not use the net, but at the end of the semester, there is
no one who does not use the net. This is the significant change of using the new mode on the
part of the students. Of course, for the learning subject at the end of the semester, the students
pay much more attention to English partly because they are English majors.
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Table 4 Results from the Questionnaire for the Attitudes of Students’ Net Learning
Item
Acceptance (%) Effectiveness (%) Recommendation (%)
Totally Agree Disagree High Med. Low Strongly Willing Unwilling
Beginning 15.8 73.7 10.5 13.2 57.9 28.9 7.9 47.4 44.7
End 26.3 71.1 2.6 26.3 65.8 7.9 23.6 63.2 13.2
Table 4 reveals the result of the students’ attitudes toward the network-based teaching
mode. At the beginning of the semester, only 15.8% of the students accept net learning and
10.5% of the students do not accept it. However, at the end of the semester, the total acceptance
rate increases by 10.5% and the non-acceptance rate decreases by 7.9%. From the changes in
percentage we can see that most of the students accept the new mode of net learning. As for
the effectiveness of net learning, at the end of the semester, the percentage of the students who
think that net learning has high effectiveness increases by 13.1%, whereas the percentage of
the students who think that net learning has low effectiveness decreases by 21.0%. From the
change, we can see that the students can benefit immensely from net learning, thus 86.8% of
the students are willing or strongly willing to recommend the use of net learning. We still see
that some of the students do not accept and are unwilling to recommend net learning to their
friends. The authors ask about the reasons. From the investigation, the authors observe that they
lack searching skills on the net, so that they waste their time in learning. Therefore, the authors
believe that how to use net effectively is to be taught to the students.
Table 5 Scores of the Final Examination
Class Number of
Students Highest Score Lowest Score Average Score
Experiment class 38 90 53 73.8
Control class 40 93 48 69.3
Total 78 93 48 71.5
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After analyzing the students’ attitude and the learning habits, the authors aim to find out
whether the network-based teaching mode stimulates the students and whether the students’
reading ability is improved. Thus, the same examination is to be taken by all the students.
As is shown in Table 5, at the end of the semester, the scores of the experiment class and the
control class are different. Although there is a student who gets the highest score 93 in the
control class, the average score of the examination of the experiment class (73.8) is higher
than that of the control class (69.3). It shows that network-based teaching mode can provide
effectiveness in English phonetics learning for English majors.
Table 6 One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on the Average Final Score
Class Sum of Squares df Mean Square F P-value
Between groups 392.771 1 392.771
Within groups 7458.716 76 98.141 4.002 0.049
Total 7851.487 77
To see whether there is significant difference between the control class and the
experiment class, the ANOVA on the average final score is analyzed. From Table 6, we can
see that F=4.002>1, and p=0.049<0.05, which shows that obvious differences exist in the two
classes. The network-based English phonetics teaching mode can lead to effective study.
4. Conclusion
Through the experiment and data analysis, we find that the network-based teaching mode
can benefit students better than the traditional teaching mode. It helps the English majors to
have access to more learning resources, to speak English in a more effective manner, and to
develop the habit of autonomous learning. Meanwhile it helps the teacher conduct a reform in
English phonetics teaching and devote more time to research.
...
(Adapted from Wang, Y. W. & Zhou, H. S. 2019. Study on the Network-Based English
Phonetics Teaching Mode for English-Major Students. International Journal of Emerging
Technologies in Learning, 14(5): 165–175.)
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Information Elements Examples
Background
Research objective (aim)
Methods (procedure, methodology)
Results (findings, product)
Conclusion (implication)
C. Drafting an Abstract Together with Keywords
Now that we have learned how to prepare for drafting an abstract and how to find out
the five basic information elements for an abstract, it’s time for us to draft an abstract with
keywords.
??Task
Draft an abstract together with keywords for the paper based on the table
above.
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D. Making a Reference List
All of the sources you refer to in the main body of your paper need to be listed at the
end on a reference list. On this list, you need to list those sources from which you have either
quoted or paraphrased.
A reference includes at least the following three functions:
? First, it is used to avoid plagiarism;
? Second, it tells editors and readers what sources have been cited in the paper;
? Third, it can help readers to refer to the materials when they write papers.
And a good reference should adhere to the following three rules:
? First, it must be authoritative. Choosing an authoritative expert and an authoritative
journal in a related field to refer to is quite safe and preferable when citing others’
work.
? Second, it should be up-to-date. Except old but typical books or articles, your
references should be of the latest study to convince your readers.
? Third, you can use two or three articles in the journal that you want to submit to as
your references, which can help to enhance your target journal’s influence.
There are at least two different types of references. The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) style is widely used in writing research papers, commonly in
technical fields, particularly in computer science. As for books, it follows this format:
References:
J. K. Author, “Title of Chapter in the Book,” in Title of His Published Book, xth ed. City
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of Publisher, Country if not the U.S.A.: Abbrev. of Publisher, Year, pp. xxx–xxx.
For example:
■ [1] B. Klaus and P. Horn, Robot Vision. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.
■ [2] L. Stein, “Random Patterns,” in Computers and You, New York: Wiley, 1994, pp. 55–70.
As for journals, it follows this format:
References:
J. K. Author,“ Name of Paper,” Abbrev. of Title of Periodical, vol. x, no. x, pp. xxx–xxx,
Abbrev. of Month, Year.
For example:
■ [1] R. E. Kalman, “New Results in Linear Filtering and Prediction Theory,” J. Basic Eng., vol.
83, pp. 95–108, Mar., 1961.
■ [2] Ye. V. Lavrova, “Geographic Distribution of Ionospheric Disturbance in the F2 Layer,”
Tr. Izmiran, no. 29, pp. 31– 43, Nov. 19, 1961.
Modern Language Association (MLA) style is an academic style guide widely used
in the United States, Canada, and other countries, providing guidelines for writing and
documentation of research in social sciences. As for book with one author, it follows this
format:
References:
Author’s last name, first name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of
publication. Publication medium.
For example:
■ McDonagh, Sean. Why Are We Deaf to the Cry of the Earth. Dublin: Veritas, 2001. Print.
As for print journal article, it follows this format:
References:
The first author’s last name, first name and last author’s first name and last name. “Title
of Article.” Title of Journal. Volume. Issue (Year): Pages. Publication medium.
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7 Abstract & Documentation UNIT
For example:
■ Mann, Susan. “Myths of Asian Womanhood.” Journal of Asian Studies. 59.1 (2000): 835–
862. Print.
??Task
Decide whether the following statements are true or false based on the passage
above.
1) You needn’t list all your references at the end of the reference list. ( )
2) The materials you have paraphrased can’t be regarded as the references. ( )
3) A reference can be used to avoid plagiarism. ( )
4) A reference list can help readers to locate the materials that have been referred to.
( )
5) A good reference must be authoritative but not up-to-date. ( )
6) IEEE style is widely used in computer science while MLA style is especially used in
social sciences. ( )

Acknowledgements &
Submission
? To understand the components of an
acknowledgement;
? To learn to write an
acknowledgement;
? To learn to write a submission cover
letter.
8 UNIT
Learning Objectives
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I Warm-up
Before submitting your paper, please think about the following questions:
? Do you need to write an acknowledgement in your paper? Why or why not?
? How would your paper be processed after submission?
? What should you write in the cover letter when submitting the paper?
II Sample Reading
Sample 1
Acknowledgements
Worm strains were provided by the Caenorhabditis Genetics Center. F. C. acknowledges
funding from the Wellcome Trust/Royal Society (102531/Z/13/Z and 102531/Z/13/A), C.K.
from the German Research Foundation (CRC 1182 “Metaorganisms”, Excellence Cluster
“Inflammation at Interfaces [EXC306]), H. M. C. from the MRC (MC-A654-5QB90), W. D. H.
and L. T. from FWO Flanders, and I. B. from ERC StG 311331 and ERC PoC 842174.* We
thank Clara Essmann, Johannes Zimmermann, Ruwen Bohm, and Guido Laucke for technical
advice; Kit-Yi Leung and Nicholas Greene for sharing unpublished data; Athanasios Typas,
Jürg Bahler, and Irene Miguel-Aliaga for critical reading of the manuscript, and Andrew
Osborne for editing the manuscript.
(Pryor, R., et al. 2019. Host-Microbe-Drug-Nutrient Screen Identifies Bacterial Effectors
of Metformin Therapy. Cell, 178(6): 1299–1312.)
* F. C., C. K., H. M. C., W. D. H., L. T., and I. B. are all names of co-authors.
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UNIT8 Acknowledgements & Submission
Sample 2
Submission Cover Letter*
Dear Dr. James Joyce,
I am writing to submit our manuscript entitled “A Novel Root-End Filling Material
Based on Hydroxyapatite, Tetracalcium Phosphate, and Polyacrylic Acid” by Ling Huchong
and Qiao Feng from State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and
Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China. It is submitted to be considered
for publication as an “Original Article” in your journal. We developed a novel filling material
hydroxyapatite/tetracalcium phosphate/polyacrylic acid cement (HA/TTCP/PAA), which
outperformed glass ionomer cement (GIC) and Portland cement (PC) in tests of chemical
composition, physical properties, and cytotoxicity.
Given that there are still controversies in the clinical application value of A, B and C,
the most common radiopaque agents, we believe that the findings presented in the paper
will appeal to dentists and end-filling material developers who subscribe to International
Science Journal. Although prior studies have identified a few radiopaque agents with which
end-filling materials were made and could be used in clinic, they have been cost-prohibitive
and difficult to administer on a national level. Thus, our findings will allow your readers
to understand chemical composition, physical properties, and cytotoxicity of end-filling
materials made from the three agents. In doing so, we hope that our research provides more
options for dentists in clinical practice.
No conflict of interest exits in the submission of this manuscript, and the manuscript is
approved by all authors for publication. I would like to declare on behalf of my co-authors
that the work described was original research that has not been published previously, and not
under consideration for publication elsewhere, in whole or in part.
Should you select our manuscript for peer review, we would like to suggest the following
potential reviewers/referees because they would have the requisite background to evaluate our
findings and interpretations objectively.
1) Duan Yu, University of Texas, Duanyu@utex.edu, Professor of endodontology
2) Shi Tai, University of Texas, Shitai@utex.edu, Professor of endodontology
* See Appendix 3 on Page 157 for the paper processing cycle at the editor’s office.
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Additionally, to the best of our knowledge, neither of the above-suggested persons has
any conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
If you require any additional information regarding our manuscript or any queries, please
don’t hesitate to contact me at the address below. Thank you for your time and consideration.
Yours sincerely,
Dr. Ling Huchong
Corresponding author:
Prof. Dr. Qiao Feng
State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
Southeast University
Nanjing 210096
P.R. China
Tel: (+8625) 12345678
Fax: (+8625) 12345678
E-mail: Qiao Feng@ seu.edu.cn
??Tasks
List the information elements that you should include in the acknowledgment of a
journal paper based on Sample Reading 1.
1
137
UNIT8 Acknowledgements & Submission
List the information elements of a submission cover letter based on Sample
Reading 2.
Fill in the blanks according to the Chinese information in the brackets.
The authors 1) ( 感谢) the patients who 2) ( 参
与) in the study. We would also like to show our 3) ( 感激) to Dr. Jean-
Frederic Colombel (co-director of the Feinstein IBD Center, Mount Sinai Hospital, New York,
NY) for invaluable discussions and insights on Crohn’s disease, and we thank three
4) (匿名评审员) for their detailed 5) (修回意见). We are also
immensely 6) ( 感激) to Dr. Emilie Grasset (Precision Immunology Institute,
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY) for her 7) ( 专长)
and discussion on an earlier version of the 8) ( 稿子). This research
9) ( 部分由……资助) by R01 DK106593, and the Sanford J. Grossman
Charitable Trust; R.U. is 10) ( 资助) by a Career Development Award
from the Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation and an NIH K23 Career Development Award
(K23KD111995-01A1).
III Language Focus
Politeness
Politeness in letter/e-mail writing involves taking into account the correspondent’s
feelings. Therefore, it is always necessary to avoid any choice of words that might be facethreatening
when you write a submission cover letter or respond to a reviewer’s comments.
The table below shows the frequently used speech acts and politeness strategies in
correspondence with the editor’s office.
2
3
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Acts Politeness Strategies Examples
Salutation
Use appropriate forms of
address
Dear Dr. James Joyce
Closing
Use appropriate forms of
address
Kind regards
Signature
Use appropriate forms of
address
Prof. Dr. Qiao Feng
Context
Establish common ground
As we all know, ...
As you would agree, ...
As the reviewer suggests that...
Go on a record
Thank you for the message...
Special thanks to you for your invaluable
comments.
Pre-closing Be optimistic Look forward to hearing from you.
Enclose Sender asserts knowledge
Attached is the following...
Please find attached the manuscript.
Confirmation
Minimize imposition I agree with you regarding...
Establish common ground
It’s really true as the reviewer suggests
that...
We have made correction according to
the reviewers’ comments.
Considering the reviewers’ comments,
we have...
Request
Go on a record I would appreciate it if you could...
Minimize imposition Please let me know if...
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UNIT8 Acknowledgements & Submission
Acts Politeness Strategies Examples
Hedged
Can you please...
I wonder if you could...
Apology Beg forgiveness
I am sorry for negligence of.../for my
incorrect writing...
(Adapted from Goudarzi E., Ghonsooly B., Taghipour Z. 2015. Politeness Strategies
in English Business Letters: A Comparative Study of Native and Non-Native Speakers of
English. Psychology of Language and Communication, 19(1): 44–57.)
??Tasks
The following sentences are taken from reviewers’ comments. Make a point-bypoint
response to the comments with reference to the expressions listed in the
table above.
1) The entire manuscript needs to be edited for proper use of the English language and
syntax.
2) Check instructions for authors for the required journal format for referring to the
published literature.
3) Avoid the use of +/– to express variation.
4) The sample size of included studies may be shown in the forest plots (Figure 2).
1
(Continued)
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5) Methods: The reference standard investigations (“gold standard” investigation for
final diagnosis) used in the studies may be briefly described.
Fill in the blanks by translating the Chinese information in the brackets.
1) ___________________________________________. ( 感谢您指出这一点)
2) ____________________________( 请告知) if you have any questions.
3) _________________________________. ( 稿件请见附件)
4) _________________________________ ( 我将感激不尽) if you could reply soon.
5) We have made corrections_________________________. ( 根据评审的意见)
IV Academic Writing Skills
A. Writing a Submission Cover Letter
The submission cover letter gives the first impression of your paper and it may help the
editor-in-chief to make a decision about whether your paper can be published.
It is a good opportunity for the author to highlight the merits and significance of his
or her research. Also it gives the editor a reason to read it further and send it to the peer
reviewers. If your research cannot interest the editor, it cannot interest the readers either. So a
strong and convincing submission cover letter is very important in the paper processing cycle.
??Task
Write a submission cover letter for your own manuscript. You can refer to
Sample Reading 2.
B. Writing a Reply to the Decision Letter
In the reply to the decision letter, make sure you mention that you have made a point-bypoint
revision according to the editor-in-chief’s and peer reviewers’ comments.
2
141
UNIT8 Acknowledgements & Submission
??Task
The following is the editor-in-chief’s decision letter. Fill in the blanks based on
the decision letter and then write a reply to it.
From: iejeditor@cardiff.ac.uk
To: Qiao Feng@seu.edu.cn
CC: Ling Huchong@seu.edu.cn
Subject: Manuscript ID IEJ-12-00123, International Endodontic Journal
Body:
Dear Dr. Qiao,
Manuscript ID: IEJ-12-00123
Manuscript Title: A Novel Root-End Filling Material Based on Hydroxyapatite,
Tetracalcium Phosphate, and Polyacrylic Acid
I have received the comments of the referee(s) and decided that your manuscript requires
major changes and then go through the refereeing process again. However, please note that
resubmitting your manuscript does not guarantee eventual acceptance.
Should you wish to revise and resubmit your manuscript, please revise your paper taking
into account any points they have raised—their comments can be found at the end of this
e-mail. Also double check that in the body of the text and in the reference section the names
of authors are spelt correctly including any non-English characters where appropriate.
You will be unable to make your revisions online using the originally submitted version
of the manuscript. Instead, revise your manuscript on your PC/MAC using your word
processing programme and save it on your computer. Please highlight the changes to your
manuscript within the document by using the “track changes” mode in MS Word or the
equivalent.
To upload your revised manuscript, log on to http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/iej
and enter your Author Center, where you will find your original manuscript title listed
under “Manuscripts with Decisions”. Under “Actions”, click on “Create a Revision”. Your
manuscript number has been appended to denote a revision.
When submitting your revised manuscript, you will be able to respond to the comments
made by the referees(s) in the space provided. You can use this space to document any
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changes that you have made to the original manuscript. Please be as specific as possible in
your response to the referee(s).
I look forward to receiving your revised manuscript.
Kind regards
Paul Dummer
Editor-in-Chief, International Endodontic Journal
iejeditor@cardiff.ac.uk
1) Editor-in-chief’s decision: _________________
2) The author should:
3) A reply to the decision letter:
Dear
A Sample Proposal
Under What Conditions Does Explicit Knowledge of a Second Language Facilitate the Acquisition of Implicit Knowledge?
A Research Proposal
Jan H. Hulstijn & Rick de Graaff
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
Abstract: This paper proposes nine hypotheses for empirical research aiming to assess under which conditions explicit grammar instruction helps the acquisition of implicit knowledge of a second language. The results of empirical studies, designed on the basis of these hypotheses, may replace the unqualified interface and noninterface positions by qualified positions claiming that explicit instruction facilitates the acquisition of implicit knowledge under specific conditions. These conditions depend on factors such as linguistic domain, complexity, scope and reliability, and semantic or formal redundancy of the target structures. Finally, they depend on factors such as rule versus item learning and reception versus production.
1. Introduction
In this paper we take an empirical approach to the question to what extent the acquisition of implicit knowledge, as the product and goal of second language (L2) learning, can be facilitated by explicit learning. We use the term “explicit learning” in the sense defined by Schmidt, as learning with awareness at the point of learning. According to Schmidt, explicit learning may vary from spontaneous rule discovery by the learner on the one hand to explicit instruction on the other hand, i.e., guidance on the part of the teacher through input enhancement or presentation and explanation of grammar rules.
Some researchers take the stance that explicit grammar instruction is of little help and
Appendix
1
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that L2 acquisition must be fostered by giving L2 learners large amounts of “comprehensible
input” (e.g., Krashen, 1981, 1982, 1985). Others recognize the prime importance of large
amounts of comprehensible input and involvement of L2 learners in communicative activities,
but take the view that, under certain conditions, explicit grammar instruction, in one way or
another, can be of considerable help (e.g., Bley-Vroman, 1988; Doughty, 1991; Ellis, 1990,
1993a, 1993b; Larsen-Freeman, 1991; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Lightbown & Spada,
1993; Schmidt, 1988, 1990, 1993; Rutherford & Sharwood Smith, 1985; Sharwood Smith,
1993; Terrell, 1991; Van Patten & Cadiemo, 1993a, 1993b).
Our perspective is a programmatic one: Assuming that the answer to the question of
whether explicit grammar instruction facilitates the acquisition of implicit knowledge will
not be an unqualified “never” nor an unqualified “always”, how can we lay out a programme
of research which aims at assessing when, i.e., under which conditions, explicit grammar
instruction helps?
This paper is set up as follows. Section 2 lists our assumptions and summarizes and
discusses various theoretical positions: Krashen’s (1981, 1982, 1985) noninterface position,
Anderson’s (1980, 1982) strong interface position, and Ellis’ (1993a) weak interface
hypothesis. Section 3 provides a number of testable hypotheses, based on various theoretical
and pedagogical considerations. Section 4 discusses the relative merits of “natural” versus
(semi)artificial experiments. In section 5, we draw our conclusions.
2. Theoretical Positions
Let us summarize the assumptions underlying most current theories of L1 and L2
acquisition. We sum these assumptions up, couched in our own terminology:
(1) Fluent language proficiency of native speakers of any age is based on “implicit
knowledge” (I-knowledge) of the grammar of their L1.
(2) Most native speakers have little “explicit knowledge” (E-knowledge) of their L1,
although some E-knowledge may be learned in school.
(3) Almost nothing is known about the process of the acquisition of I-knowledge of the
L1. One thing is certain, however, caretakers do not teach young children grammar rules.
Thus, I-knowledge is not acquired through the acquisition of E-knowledge.
(4) As in the case of L1, a fluent use of the L2 is based on I-knowledge of that language.
The behavioral correlate of this I-knowledge is fluency in language use.
The next subsections consider these positions in more detail.
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Appendix 1 A Sample Proposal
2.1 The Noninterface Position
One of the best known proponents of the noninterface position is Krashen (1981, 1982,
1985). According to Krashen, there is a fundamental difference between “acquisition” (of
I-knowledge) and “learning” (of E-knowledge). Learning does not facilitate acquisition.
L2-utterances are generated on the basis of I-knowledge. E-knowledge only plays a role in
monitoring utterances thus generated. Grammar instruction may result in E-knowledge but
cannot result in, nor affect I-knowledge. For that reason, grammar instruction is of little or
no importance for becoming fluent in the L2. I-knowledge can only be acquired by receiving
large amounts of “comprehensible input”. That is about all the noninterface position has to say
about the mechanics of the actual process of acquiring I-knowledge. In this respect, Krashen’s
position reflects Chomsky’s much quoted statement (1970), viz. “that we should probably
try to create a rich linguistic environment for the intuitive heuristics that the normal human
automatically possesses”.
Krashen’s noninterface position certainly is a well defendable position for L2 pedagogy.
But from an empirical perspective it is a fruitless position, as long as the distinction between
acquisition and learning has not been operationalized (Hulstijn, 1984; Larsen-Freeman &
Long, 1991; McLaughlin 1978, 1987).
2.2 The Interface Position
The interface position comes in two forms (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991). First,
E-knowledge becomes I-knowledge through practice. Second, E-knowledge cannot become
I-knowledge but it aids the acquisition of I-knowledge. Thus, the interface position sees
E-knowledge as either necessary or instrumental in acquiring I-knowledge. We will discuss
each form in turn.
2.2.1 A Strong Interface Position
According to what Ellis (1993a) has called the “strong interface position”, I-knowledge
emerges from E-knowledge directly, i.e., through practice. This position is derived from the
literature on skill acquisition in cognitive psychology, in particular theories of controlled and
automatic processing. One of the best known of these theories is Anderson’s ACT theory
(Anderson, 1982). According to Anderson, declarative, propositional knowledge is converted
into procedural knowledge by processes of compilation, tuning, and restructuring. The original
declarative knowledge need not always be replaced by procedural knowledge: “Sometimes the
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two forms of knowledge can coexist side by side, as when we can speak a foreign language
fluently and still remember many rules of grammar. However, it is the procedural, not the
declarative knowledge that governs the skilled performance” (Anderson, 1980).
For many years, the strong interface position was the accepted view of most practitioners
in the field of L2 pedagogy. A skilled and fluent command of the L2 was (and, by many, still
is) viewed as the automatization of the application of explicit grammar rules. It should be
noticed, however, that most educationalists interpreted the notion of automatization as rapid
serial execution rather than as parallel processing.
2.2.2 A Weak Interface Position
Ellis (1993a) rejects the strong interface position while replacing it by what he calls a
“weak interface position”. To illustrate all three positions (noninterface, strong interface, and
weak interface), Ellis presents the following figure, using labels from both Anderson’s skill
acquisition theory (1982) and Bialystok’s two-dimensional model of language proficiency (see
e.g., Bialystok, 1990a, 1991).
Table 1 The Difference Between Explicit/Implicit and Declarative/Procedural Knowledge
Declarative Procedural
Explicit
Type A
Conscious knowledge of
L2 items.
Type B
Conscious knowledge of learning, production, and
communication strategies.
The learner can use explicit knowledge easily and
rapidly.
Implicit
Type C
Intuitive knowledge
of L2 items.
Type D
Ability to employ learning, production, and
communication strategies automatically.
The learner can use intuitive knowledge fluently.
Source: Ellis, 1993a, p. 94.
3. The Interface Position Translated into Testable Hypotheses
Basing empirical research on the assumption that explicit instruction (and hence that
explicit learning) somehow “facilitates” the acquisition of I-knowledge does not mean that
we have no theories or other sources of knowledge to draw upon. In this section, we present
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Appendix 1 A Sample Proposal
six dimensions within which variables can be chosen for the formulation of testable research
questions. An illustrative example is given for each dimension, followed by one or more
testable hypotheses.
From the outset, however, it must be emphasized that each hypothesis embodies a
simplification: The reader has to add the phrase “ceteris paribus” to each hypothesis, as it
were. In reality, however, all other things aren’t equal. A factor mentioned in one hypothesis
may well interact with a factor mentioned in another hypothesis. Indeed, it is likely that cases
of interaction constitute more interesting issues to be pursued than the straight ones covered
by the hypotheses below.
3.1 Linguistic Domain
The first dimension within which one must specify the interface position is linguistic. In
which linguistic domains can explicit instruction help the acquisition of I-knowledge? In the
domain of morpho-phonology? In the subdomain of lexical, flectional morphology only (e.g.,
verb conjugation, noun declension)? In syntax? In certain limited areas within syntax only (e.g.,
word order phenomena related to L1/L2 differences at the level of D-structure, in contrast to
S-structure)?
Given the current state of linguistics, one of the most important criteria to distinguish,
in a principled way, between various linguistic domains, is offered by Generative Grammar.
Generative grammarians distinguish between formal aspects of grammar within the domain
of Universal Grammar and domains falling outside the UG scope. Concerning the UG aspects
of grammar, our hypotheses might depend on our stance on the issue of whether UG is still
available to L2 learners or not. In the former case, parameter resetting is possible. In the latter
case, L2 learners will depend more on general cognitive capacities to overcome the loss of the
ability to acquire the L2 grammar on the basis of positive L2 input alone. If we assume that
UG is still available, our hypotheses might depend on whether the L1 setting of a parameter
constitutes a subset or a superset of the L2 setting. In the latter case, L2 learners have to
“unlearn” the marked L1 setting, and this may require receiving negative evidence. If a
parameter has two possible settings only (e.g., the Head-position parameter, which can either
be head-initial or head-final), one is found in L1 and the other in L2, the acquisition of the
L2 setting may be possible on the basis of primary linguistic input (positive evidence) only.
Finally, when various rules cluster under a single parameter, teaching all rules may not be
necessary and even fruitless after one rule has been acquired (Rutherford, 1989; White, 1992;
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Schwartz, 1993; Jordens, 1993).
Here are some tentative hypotheses which could be tested on the basis of the above
considerations:
* H1: The advantage of the provision of explicit instruction, in comparison with the
nonprovision of explicit instruction, is greater in the case of aspects falling outside the scope
of UG than in the case of aspects falling inside its scope.
* H2: The advantage of explicit instruction is greater when the L1 setting of a parameter
forms a superset and the L2 setting a subset of a parameter than in the reverse situation. With “is
greater” in these two and all following hypotheses we mean that the acquisition of I-knowledge
with the help of explicit instruction takes place more easily and in less time than without. We
do not claim, however, that explicit instruction (and learning) will always result in a higher
level of ultimate attainment. Note that, for ease of reading, we have left out the phrase “in
comparison with the non-provision of explicit instruction” in hypothesis 2 and all following
hypotheses.
3.2 Complexity
The basic idea here is that L2 grammar rules, represented in a declarative, propositional
form (as they appear in course books, for example), differ in complexity. Complexity here is
not to be defined in terms of linguistic theory, but in cognitive terms.
Consider the following two fabricated examples, illustrating complexity differences
between two purely formal (phonological) rules and two semantic (aspectual) rules
respectively. Example 1: In language M, verbs have different endings for two aspects, perfect
and nonperfect; in language N, however, verbs have different inflections for three aspects,
perfective, durative, and punctual. Example 2: In language X there are two plural suffixes for
nouns: the suffix -s is added to singular nouns ending on a vowel, and the suffix -os is added
to nouns ending on a consonant. Language Y has the same two suffixes: -s for nouns ending
on a vowel and for nouns ending on a consonant containing a front vowel in the penultimate
syllable, -os for nouns ending on a consonant and containing a back vowel in the penultimate
syllable. If we were to make flowcharts for the derivation of inflections in languages M and
N and for the derivation of the plural suffix in languages X and Y, the charts for languages
M and X would contain fewer steps than those for N and Y respectively. Note that degree of
complexity is contingent not so much on the number of forms in a paradigm, but rather on
the number (and/or the type) of criteria to be applied in order to arrive at the correct form. On
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Appendix 1 A Sample Proposal
such a declarative notion of complexity, we may base the following hypothesis:
* H3: The advantage of explicit instruction is greater in the case of complex rules than in
the case of simple rules.
The reason is that simple formal phenomena may be salient enough in the input to be
discovered by L2 learners spontaneously, without the help of explicit instruction. In the case
of complex phenomena, however, explicit instruction may save learners considerable time
in discovering their intricacies. Note that this hypothesis is concerned with the (cognitive)
complexity of a rule of language, not with the complexity of the way in which the rule
is explained by teacher or textbook. Of course, it is a sound pedagogical principle that
explanations should be formulated in as simple as possible terms. Furthermore, declarative
complexity as defined here, is not to be confused with “complicatedness” or “difficulty”,
experienced by learners as a result of contrast between their L1 and L2 (see also H2).
Some researchers have tried to explain the notion of cognitive complexity in terms of
processing constraints (Clahsen, 1984; Pienemann, 1989; Pienemann & Johnston, 1987). This
was done to explain so called “natural” acquisition orders, found among L2 learners who did
not receive formal L2 instruction. The hypotheses of Pienemann are of an entirely different
nature than the one proposed here. The former hypotheses are embedded in a developmental
theory pertaining to acquisition orders. Our claim that explicit instruction helps more in the
case of complex rules than in the case of simple rules pertains to the ease and duration of
acquisition, not to the rank order of acquisition onset times of structural features.
3.3 Scope and Reliability
Many rules of language apply only probabilistically. Such “rules”, or “probabilistic
tendencies” can differ in scope (the number of cases covered) and reliability (the extent to
which the rule holds true, Bates & MacWhinney, 1989). Scope may be large or small and
reliability may be high or low. Let us draw two (arbitrary) border lines: The scope of a rule
is said to be large or small when the rule covers more or fewer than 50 cases; the rehability
of a rule is said to be high or low when the rule applies in more or less than 90% of all cases.
According to these definitions, there are four possibilities. Consider the following examples
concerning noun gender in German (mascuhne, feminine, and neuter), as specified by Mills
(1986: 33):
(1) Of the ca. 15,000 singular nouns ending on -e, about 13,500 (90%) are feminine.
(2) Of the 15 monosyllabic nouns beginning with Kn-, 14 are masculine (93%).
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(3) Of the 107 monosyllabic nouns ending on -C nasal C, 75 are masculine (70%).
(4) Of the 45 nouns ending on -ier, 27 are neuter (60%).
We can classify these four tendencies in terms of scope and reliability, as follows:
(1) = large scope & high reliability
(2) = small scope & high reliability
(3) = large scope & low reliability
(4) = small scope & low reliability
Many language teachers believe that it makes sound practice to restrict explicit grammar
teaching to rules with both a large scope and a high reliability. In the three remaining cases,
learners should not be given the rules. Such rules are believed to bring too little profit
considering their costs (the law of “diminishing return”). Thus, in the cases of (2), (3), and (4),
learners must be told to simply associate the gender feature to each word individually. On this
practice we may base the following hypothesis:
*H4: The advantage of explicit instruction is greater when a rule applies to many cases
(large scope) and when it has a high success rate (high reliability) than when it has a small
scope and/or a low reliability.
Note that complexity on the one hand and scope and reliability on the other, although to
be distinguished conceptually, in the practice of language pedagogy often go hand in hand.
For instance, language teachers often decide not to present complex rules if they are small
in scope. Furthermore, when teachers wonder whether they should explain a phenomenon
either with a more reliable but more complex rule or with a less reliable but more simple rule,
they may opt for the latter, sacrificing reliability for simplicity, e.g., presenting a general rule
without its exceptions or subrules.
3.4 Rule Learning Versus Item Learning
Consider the following four rules of German:
1. The finite verb in declarative main sentences almost always takes second position.
2. When only one constituent is being negated, the negation word nicht is placed
immediately before it, e.g., nicht A sondern B (“not A but B”).
3. German nouns ending on -e are almost always feminine, as we have already seen; e.g.,
Kiiche (“kitchen”) is feminine.
4. Verb forms in the present tense, indicative, first person singular almost always end on
-e; e.g., ich lerne Englisch (“I learn English”).
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Appendix 1 A Sample Proposal
All four rules are large in scope and they rank high on reliability. Yet there is a difference
between rules 1 and 2 on the one hand and rules 3 and 4 on the other. For the latter two
phenomena, there are, in principle, two ways for language production. The language user may
either apply the rule, or produce individually stored forms (e.g., lerne) or features (e.g., the
feature Feminine with Kiiche). Thus, for phenomena 3 and 4, two alternative routes towards
language production offer themselves, one based on rule learning and one based on item
learning. For phenomena 1 and 2, however, there is only the possibility of rule application.
One could argue that teaching rules 3 and 4 does not foster language acquisition much, since
learners may spontaneously learn individual forms or individual features (item learning). For
phenomena 1 and 2, however, rule teaching may help learners to apply the principle (which
may or may not have originated from previous encounters with a number of individual
instances) to an indefinitely large class of instances. This leads to the following hypothesis:
*H5: The advantage of explicit instruction is greater when language production can only
be based on rule application, than when it can be based not only on rule application but also
on the retrieval of individually stored items (“item learning”). The likelihood of item learning
as an alternative to rule learning may be dependent of the frequency with which items
occur. Forms occurring frequently in the input may be more likely to be stored and accessed
separately than infrequent forms. Since the issue of item v.s. rule learning mostly pertains to
inflectional morphology, a hypothesis concerning the relative merits of item learning might
be more relevant for the learning of languages with moderate flection (French, German,
English) than for the learning of languages with high amounts of flection (Turkish, Finnish,
Hungarian). Thus, we can reiterate the above stated complexity hypothesis, while applying it
to the domain of flection:
*H6: The advantage of explicit instruction is greater in the case of complex inflectional
rules (which are also reliable and large in scope) than in the case of simple inflectional rules
(also reliable and large in scope).
There are two motivations for this hypothesis. The first reason is that grammar
instruction may be more helpful to clarify complex, less salient structures than to clarify
simple, more salient structures (section 3.2). The second reason is that, if there are fewer
forms in an inflectional paradigm, each one of them is more likely to occur more often and is
therefore more likely to be learned individually, than if there are more forms per paradigm.
In the latter case, each form is likely to occur less frequently than all forms together, and is
therefore less likely to be learned as an individual item.
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3.5 Reception Versus Production
There is ample evidence that L2 learners often keep making errors in spontaneous speech
long after the grammar rule in question has been presented and practiced in written exercises.
In fact, it is on the basis of such evidence that proponents of the noninterface position argue that
explicit instruction in L2 pedagogy is of little importance and should perhaps be abandoned
altogether. It is surprising, however, that the debate of whether explicit instruction is useful
or not, focuses exclusively on E-knowledge’s impact on speaking and writing and almost
never on its impact on reading and listening. One might argue, however, that E-knowledge
(and hence explicit instruction) affects language comprehension during reading and listening
positively, in that it helps L2 learners to discern the meaning of the input. Thus, although we
might acknowledge that explicit instruction has limited effect on language production, we may
hypothesize that explicit instruction has considerable effect on language comprehension.
*H7: The advantage of explicit instruction is greater in the case of L2 comprehension
than in the case of L2 production.
3.6 Semantic Versus Formal Redundancy
Some language forms are semantically redundant (e.g., the -s suffix in third person
singular verb forms in English) while others are not (e.g., the -s plural noun suffix in English).
This may be of more importance to language comprehension than to language production,
since knowledge of semantically redundant phenomena may not be required for language
comprehension. Hence, we frame the following hypothesis:
*H8: As for L2 comprehension, the advantage of explicit instruction is greater in the
case of grammatical features with semantic implications than in the case of purely formal
(semantically redundant) features.
In language production on the other hand, learners may have more difficulty to apply
purely formal rules (e.g., adding third person singular -s to English present tense verb forms)
than to apply combined formal-semantic rules (e.g., adding a plural -s to count nouns in
English). Terrell (1991) states that explicit grammar instruction helps to segment the otherwise
overwhelming input and to establish meaning-form links, especially for morphology that is
neither salient nor semantically essential. This leads us to the following hypothesis:
*H9: As for L2 production, the advantage of explicit instruction is greater in the case of
purely formal (semantically redundant) features than in the case of grammatical features with
semantic implications.
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Appendix 1 A Sample Proposal
4. Laboratory Versus Natural Settings: A Twin Approach
In the previous sections we have shown that the empirical study of the influence of
grammar instruction on I-knowledge is a complicated affair. One of the most notorious
methodological problems is to adequately manipulate all those independent variables which
one wants to manipulate while keeping all other potentially interfering variables constant.
This is almost impossible in “normal” classrooms with real L2 learners (Harley, this issue).
It comes as no surprise, therefore, that the outcomes of such studies often form the object
of considerable disagreement. This was recently illustrated by the controversy between
Lightbown & Pienemann (1993) and Krashen (1993). Although research in “real” classrooms
should bring the final proof because of the alleged validity of the classroom setting, a
researcher may want to exert more control than is possible in a normal classroom setting.
There are various ways to bring instruction and learning under control of the researcher.
The first way is to control the language to be learned. This can be done by teaching an
artificial or partly artificial language (e.g., Issidorides, 1988; Hulstijn, 1989b; Yang & Givon,
1993; DeKeyser, 1994). The advantage of this method is that the researcher can be certain that
no subject in the experiment can have knowledge of the target structures and that performance
on tests must stem from learning during the experiment.
The second way is to control the instruction properly (i.e., the explanation of grammar
rules). One way of doing this is to replace the live explanation of the teacher by a prerecorded
explanation. Using a computer-controlled learning setting is an obvious way of controlling
instruction (Doughty, 1991).
Finally, the researcher may control input in a quantitative way by specifying in advance
how much instruction and practice subjects will receive. Here again, a computer-controlled
learning setting presents itself as an obvious choice (e.g., Chapelle & Jamieson, 1986; Yang &
Givon, 1993).
Does this mean that hypotheses such as the ones advanced in section 3 should only
be investigated in “unnatural”, laboratory settings? Certainly not. The final proof should
always be given in a “normal” language class, with “real” teachers and “real” L2 learners,
learning a “real” L2 in the framework of a “real” language course, including “normal”
exchanges between teacher and learners and among learners themselves (see Van Lier, this
issue). However, for methodological reasons it may be recommendable to also conduct
more laboratory-type of experiments in which the researcher can exert control of the targets
to be learned, the instruction and the execution of receptive and productive tasks, both
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quantitatively and qualitatively. Natural learning experiments may score high on validity but
are likely to score low on reliability. (Semi)artificial learning experiments may score high on
reliability but are likely to score low on validity. That is why, in our own research, we adopt a
so called twin approach, combining an artificial or semi-artificial experiment with a “natural”
experiment (Hulstijn, 1989a, 1989b, 1992, 1993).
5. Conclusions
One of the most nagging questions which has haunted researchers and practitioners alike
for a long time, is the question of whether grammar instruction aids L2 acquisition or not.
The aim of this contribution was to show that it is highly unlikely that this question can ever
be answered with an unqualified “yes” or “no”. With the aid of the distinctions proposed by
Schmidt between explicit knowledge, explicit learning and explicit instruction, and working in
the framework of an interface position between explicit and implicit knowledge, we have tried
to demonstrate that it is possible to formulate a fair number of hypotheses, specifying under
what conditions explicit knowledge may facilitate the acquisition of implicit knowledge. Our
second aim was to demonstrate that it is possible to go beyond the stage of claiming (on the
basis of acquisition theories or pedagogical experiences and intuitions) that explicit knowledge
may or may not help acquisition. Many hypotheses can and should be tested empirically. The
preceding sections lay out a vast research program. It is our hunch that the results of empirical
studies, conducted in laboratories as well as in “real” classrooms, will replace the unqualified
interface and noninterface positions, which have hitherto dominated the debate, by qualified
positions. These conditions depend on factors such as linguistic domain, complexity, scope
and reliability, and semantic or formal redundancy of the target structures. And finally, they
depend on factors such as rule versus item learning, reception versus production.
References: omitted
A Suggested Schedule for a Short-Term Research
It is impossible to produce a schedule that exactly matches every student’s research paper assignment. But generally there are 11 distinct steps in the process, requiring you to submit at least 8 hand-ins over a period of 15 weeks. With some variations, many instructors observe the following schedule:
What You Must Do
What You Must Produce
When It Is Due
1) You must select a topic that is complex enough to be researched from a variety of sources but narrow enough to be covered in 10 or so pages.
Two acceptable topics, one of which the instructor will approve
At the end of the 2nd week
2) You must do the exploratory scanning and reading of sources on your topic, and propose several research questions that could be answered within the required length of the paper.
2–3 research questions
At the end of the 4th week
3) You must gather information on your topic and assemble it into some usable sequence.
A literature review, a thesis statement, and an outline
At the end of the 8th week
4) You must draft a literature review, a thesis statement expressing the major idea behind your paper.
A literature review, a thesis statement, and an outline
At the end of the 8th week
5) You must outline the major parts of your paper.
A literature review, a thesis statement, and an outline
At the end of the 8th week
Appendix
2
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What You Must Do What You Must Produce When It Is Due
6) You must collect data if it is an
empirical study or report.
Methodology
At the end of the
9th week
7) You must analyze the data. Results
At the end of the
10th week
8) You must discuss the findings
and draw a conclusion.
Discussion and conclusion
At the end of the
11th week
9) You must write a rough draft of
the paper arguing, proving, or
supporting your hypothesis with
information uncovered by your
research. You must acknowledge
all borrowed ideas, data, and
opinions.
A rough draft of the paper
At the end of the
13th week
10) You must prepare a bibliography
or reference listing all sources
used in the paper.
The paper, complete with
bibliography or references
At the end of the
14th week
11) You must revise and edit the draft
according to the requirements.
The revised paper
At the end of the
15th week
(Continued)
Paper Processing Cycle
The flowchart below explains the manuscript processing cycle. Once the manuscript is submitted for publication, it is subjected to screening, quality assessment, reviewing, and further production processing involving language assessment, figure improvement, preparation of proofs and incorporation of required corrections.
Manuscript Submission
AcceptedPlagiarismCheckReturn to Authorfor ModificationSend to Editor in Chief for Final DecisionAccepted withMinor/Major RevisionReview Comments Sentto Edior in ChiefProceed for RevisionRevised VersionSecond Round Reviewby EditorAcceptedIn-house Publication ProcessRe-VerificationModifiedVersionContent VerificationRejectedPeer ReviewFirst Screening by EditorReturn toAuthorRejectedReturn toAuthorRejectedAcceptedReturn toAuthorOK
Appendix
3