Chapter 1

Introduction............................................ 1 

1.1 What Is Linguistics?.......................................... 2 

1.2 Scopes of Linguistics.........................................3 

1.3 Some Distinctions in Linguistics..............................5 

1.4 What Is Language?............................................7 

1.5 Summary........................................................11 

Chapter 2

Phonetics...............................................13 

2.1 The Speech Chain..............................................15 

2.2 The Organs of Speech.........................................15 

2.3 Consonants According to Places of Articulation...............18 

2.4 Consonants According to Manners of Articulation..............20 

2.5 Aspiration: A Vital Feature for Chinese Consonants...........23 

2.6 Vowels......................................................24 

2.7 Suprasegmental Features.....................................26 

2.8 Phonation Types.............................................28 

2.9 Air Stream Mechanism..........................................29 

2.10 The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and Sound Transcription...30 

2.11 Observing Speech Production Through Instruments........32 

2.12 Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds....................35 

2.13 Summary......................................................42 

Chapter 3

Phonology.............................................. 43 

3.1 Phonemes......................................................45 

3.2 Syllabic Structure and Phonotactics............................47 

3.3 Phonological Processes.........................................49 

3.4 Constraints in Phonological Processes..........................52 

3.5 Historical Sound Change........................................53 

3.6 Summary........................................................54 

Chapter 4

Morphology............................................. 57 

4.1 Definition of Morphology........................................59 

4.2 Morpheme.......................................................59 

4.3 Word Formation...................................................63 

4.4 Summary..........................................................72 

Chapter 5 

Syntax.................................................. 75 

5.1 Introduction....................................................76 

5.2 Constituency....................................................77 

5.3 Tree Diagrams...................................................78 

5.4 Major Constituents of Sentences: Noun Phrases and Verb Phrases...81 

5.5 Active and Passive Sentences....................................83 

5.6 Testing Constituency........................................84 

5.7 Phrase-Structure Expansions......................................85 

5.8 Grammatical Relations: Subject, Direct Object, and Others...........88 

5.9 Surface Structures and Underlying Structures......................91 

5.10 Syntactic Operations: Question Formation and the Auxiliary........92 

5.11 Summary..................................................94 

Chapter 6 

Semantics.............................................. 97 

6.1 Some Views on Meaning.....................................99 

6.2 Lexical Meaning..............................................102 

6.3 Sense Relations Between Words...............................109

6.4 Sense Relations Between Sentences ..........................114 

6.5 Summary.....................................................116 

Chapter 7 

Pragmatics........................................... 121 

7.1 What Is Pragmatics?............................................122 

7.2 Speech Act Theory..............................................125 

7.3 The Cooperative Principle.......................................127 

7.4 The Politeness Principle........................................130 

7.5 Summary...................................................131 

Chapter 8 

Discourse Analysis.................................... 135 

8.1 What Is Discourse Analysis?......................................136 

8.2 Information Structure ..........................................137 

8.3 Cohesion and Coherence..........................................138 

8.4 Discourse Markers...............................................144 

8.5 Conversation Analysis..........................................146 

8.6 Textual Patterns................................................149 

8.7 Summary...................................................151 

Chapter 9 

Sociolinguistics...................................... 153 

9.1 Introduction .................................................154 

9.2 Language Variety................................................155 

9.3 Languages in Contact .....................................158 

9.4 Summary.......................................................165 

Chapter 10 

Cognitive Linguistics.............................. 169 

10.1 Introduction..............................................170 

10.2 Organizing Principles of Iconicity .......................171 

10.3 Prototype Theory and Categorization .........................172 

10.4 Polysemy and Radial Networks................................173 

10.5 Metaphor and Metonymy ...................................174 

10.6 The Relation of Grammar to Cognition.........................176 

10.7 Cognitive Grammar in Operation..........................177 

10.8 Construction Grammar..........................................178 

10.9 Mental Spaces................................................179 

10.10 Grammaticalization ....................................180 

10.11 Summary.............................................181 

Chapter 11 

Psycholinguistics.................................... 183 

11.1 Overview of Psycholinguistics .............................184 

11.2 Language Comprehension Models..............................186 

11.3 Language Production Models.................................192 

11.4 Summary ...................................................194 

Chapter 12 

Language Acquisition................................ 197 

12.1 First Language Acquisition ................................199 

12.2 Second Language Acquisition................................204 

12.3 Instruction and Second Language Learning..................213 

12.4 Summary...................................................215 

References......................................... 219 

сОятя╖йУсО╠М...................................... 227