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1Aspects of energy economy
1.1Importance of energy supply
1.2Development in the past and status of world energy economy
1.3Prognosis on energy demand
1.4Energy reserves and resources
1.5Aspects of future worldwide energy supply
1.6Aspects of nuclear energy for the future world energy economy
1.7Nuclear energy for the market of electrical energy
1.8Some aspects regarding the application of nuclear energy in the non-electric energy market
1.9Some further aspects of future energy supply
1.10Some aspects of process analysis in the field of energy technology
References
2Processes of nuclear heat application
2.1Overview over possible processes
2.2Nuclear reactors for process heat application
2.3Process steam production
2.3.1Overview over possible processes
2.3.2Cogeneration processes using steam turbines
2.3.3Cogeneration processes using gas turbines
2.4Applications of process steam
2.4.1Overview
2.4.2Energy supply by district heat systems
2.4.3Process heat for sea water desalination
2.4.4Process steam for enhanced oil recovery
2.4.5Process steam application in refineries
2.4.6Energy supply in chemical industrial complexes
2.4.7Use of process steam for the gasification of carbon containing fuels
2.5Steam gasification of coal using high temperature nuclear heat
2.5.1General overview
2.5.2Use of nuclear heat for steam gasification
2.5.3Some aspects of use of steam gasification processes
2.6Steam reforming of methane
2.6.1General overview
2.6.2Use of nuclear heat for the steam reforming process
2.7Applications of the steam reforming process
2.7.1Overview over different possible processes
2.7.2Hydrogasification of coal
2.7.3Hydrocracking of heavy oil fractions
2.7.4Hydrogenation of coal
2.7.5Direct reduction of iron ore
2.7.6Long distance energy transport
2.8Production of oil from oil shale and oil sand
2.9Production of olefins from gasoline by steam cracking
2.10Production of hydrogen using nuclear heat
2.10.1Overview on hydrogen production processes
2.10.2Electrolysis of water by low temperature processes
2.10.3Electrolysis of water by high temperature processes
2.10.4Hydrogen production by thermoª²chemical processes of water splitting
2.10.5Safety aspects of hydrogen application
2.11Use of nuclear process heat for special industrial processes
2.11.1Production of aluminum
2.11.2Generation of hot air and application in different industrial processes
2.11.3Production of cement
2.11.4Production of ceramic materials
2.11.5Sintering of iron ore and forming of iron oxide pellets
2.12Combined processes for electricity production and cogeneration using IHX-systems
2.13Some aspects of analysis of processes
References
3Concept of a VHTR (Very High Temperature Reactor)
3.1Principle overview on plant
3.2Fuel elements for the generation of high helium temperatures
3.3Layout of core and core structure for very high temperatures
3.4Shut down system
3.5Fuel element handling system
3.6Primary hot gas duct
3.7Primary enclosure
3.8Primary helium circulator
3.9Reactor building
3.10Helium purification plant
3.11Decay heat removal
3.12Heat exchanging system of a VHTRª²plant
3.13Intermediate storage of spent fuel elements on site of reactor
3.14Overview on safety aspects of a VHTR
3.15Alternative technical solution for a future VHTRª²plant
References
4Experiences and special aspects of modular high temperature reactors at very high temperatures
4.1Overview on some questions according to VHTR-systems
4.2Generation of very high helium temperatures
4.3Further technical aspects of fuel elements for very high helium temperatures
4.4Helium circuits with high temperatures and low contamination
4.5Some aspects of neutron physics and general layout of core at high helium temperatures
4.6Corrosion of fuel elements and core structures at higher temperatures
4.7Technical aspects of ceramic core structures at very high temperatures
4.8Influence of high temperatures on the shutdown system
4.9Primary hot gas duct for VHTR-systems
4.10Aspects of arrangement of process heat reactors and concepts of primary enclosure
4.11Alternative concepts relevant for VHTR-plant development
4.11.1Overview
4.11.2HTTR
4.11.3PNP-prototype
4.11.4PR 500-process heat reactor
4.11.5PR 3000-process heat reactor concept
4.11.6UHTREX-project
4.11.7AVR-plant
4.11.8ANTARES-project
References
5Intermediate heat exchangers
5.1Overview over media and aspects
5.2Principal technical concept of an IHX
5.3Overview on questions in connection with an IHX and test program
5.4Thermohydraulic aspects of IHX
5.4.1Overview
5.4.2Heat transfer and pressure drops in a helical bundle
5.4.3Heat transfer and pressure drop inside the tubes
5.4.4Optimization of the thermohydraulic layout of an IHX
5.5Loads and stresses of IHX-components, application of materials
5.6Test in the KVK-facility
5.6.1Overview on goals of test program
5.6.2Technical details of the test facility
5.6.3IHX components tested in KVK
5.6.4Results of IHX-tests
5.7Design aspects
5.8Detailed design of an IHX for the PNP-project
5.9Alternative designs for IHX
References
6Components of IHX-circuit
6.1Overview
6.2Secondary hot and cold gas duct
6.2.1Overview on aspects of components
6.2.2Concepts of hot gas ducts for intermediate circuits
6.2.3Compensation of thermal effects; heat losses and temperature reduction during transport of hot helium
6.2.4Pressure drops in helium cycles and components
6.2.5Optimization of helium transport systems
6.3Hot and cold gas valves
6.4Helium circulators in IHX-cycles
6.5Helium purification in the IHX-circuit
6.6Special process units in the intermediate circuit
6.6.1Overview on different components
6.6.2Examples for special heat exchangers
References
7Helium Heated Steam Reformers
7.1Fundamental aspects of the conventional process
7.2Principle aspects of steam reformers for nuclear process heat application
7.3Overview on questions and important aspects of development
7.4Thermodynamic equilibrium and kinetics
7.4.1Thermodynamic equilibrium
7.4.2Results of kinetic experiments
7.5Energy balance and efficiency of the process
7.6Demonstration of the feasibility of the process (EVA ¢ñ-facility)
7.7Technical demonstration of the steam reforming process (EVA ¢ò-facility)
7.8Questions of thermohydraulic design of reformer tubes
7.8.1Overview
7.8.2Heat transfer on the process side
7.8.3Heat conduction in the tube wall
7.8.4Heat transfer on the helium side
7.8.5Overview on some characteristic parameters for heat transfer in conventional and helium heated reformer systems
7.9Pressure drops in reformer systems
7.9.1Pressure drops on the helium side
7.9.2Pressure drops on the process side
7.10Optimization of thermohydraulic layout of a steam reformer
7.11Aspects of thermohydraulic layout of large steam reformers (example PNP-project)
7.12Stresses in reformer tubes and application of high temperature alloys
7.12.1Overview on operation conditions and loads
7.12.2Mechanical stresses and tube dimensioning
7.12.3Thermal stresses in steam reformer tubes
7.12.4High temperature alloys
7.12.5Optimization of wall thickness of reformer tubes
7.13Tritium permeation and hydrogen permeation through walls of reformer tubes
7.14Special aspects of helium heated steam reformers: vibrations friction, fretting and wear
7.15Aspects of design and technical solutions for reformer bundles
7.16General overview on knowledge about steam reformers and work to design the component
7.17Description of a special steam reformer concept (example PNP-project)
7.18Alternative concepts of steam reformers
References
8Steam gasification of coal
8.1Principle overview
8.2Considerations on mass-and energy balances
8.3Overview on important questions
8.4Results of experiments in laboratory scale
8.5Results from semi-technical gasification
8.6Aspects of layout of a helium heated steam gasifier with large power
8.7Concepts of helium heated gasifiers for the PNP-prototype and for commercial application
8.8Alternatives for the design of helium heated steam gasifier
8.9Further applications of the gasifier in the energy technology
8.10Processes of cleaning and conditioning the product gas from steam gasification
References
9High temperature alloys
9.1General remarks
9.2Estimations of dimensions, calculation of stresses and safety factors
9.3Some special aspects of loads on components at high temperatures
9.4Aspects of design of high temperature components
9.5Material program for high temperature alloys
9.5.1Overview
9.5.2Test facilities for the material program for high temperature alloys
9.6Results of the material program
9.7Sampling of data in a ¡°material bank¡±
9.8Concepts for design rules and regulations
References
10Aspects of coupling a VHTR with a chemical plant
10.1Overview
10.2Advantages and disadvantages using intermediate cycles
10.3Thermo-hydraulic aspects of media for IHX-systems
10.4Concepts for separation of primary circuit and process plant(example: steam transformer)
10.5Flow sheets for IHX systems with helium
10.6General layout of a combined nuclear process heat plant
10.7Process gas in the neighborhood of a process heat plant
10.8Release of process gas inside the plant during accidents
10.9Permeation of Tritium into the products
10.10Permeation of hydrogen into the primary helium cycle
10.11Special aspects of decay heat removal in a VHTR-plant
10.12Aspects of operation of nuclear process heat plants
10.13Contamination of components
10.14Concept of quality control in nuclear process heat plants
10.15Supervision, maintenance and repair of components
10.16Aspects of size of chemical plants coupled to process heat reactors
References
11Special safety aspects of nuclear process heat plants
11.1Overview and general remarks
11.2New requirements on reactor safety
11.3Basic safety aspect of a process heat plant
11.4Some aspects of risks caused by toxic gases in process heat plants
11.5Aspects of application of burst safe pressure vessels in nuclear process heat plants
11.6Depressurization of components and systems
11.7Accidents with fire in nuclear process heat plants
11.8Very strong impacts by airplane crash on nuclear process heat plants
11.9Aspects of strong fires after airplane crash
11.10System behavior in case of severe disturbance of the decay heat removal
11.11Aspects of accidents of air ingress into the primary circuit
11.12Extreme accidents with water ingress into the primary helium circuit of process
heat plants
11.13Reactivity accidents of a VHTR-system
11.14Some remarks on radiological consequences of extreme accidents in a process heat plant
References
12Experiences in the field of helium technology
12.1Overview on important questions using helium as coolant in nuclear plants
12.2Characteristics of helium as heat transfer medium
12.3Some general aspects of media for heat transport in nuclear plants
12.4Overview on helium cooled reactors and test facilities to develop the helium technology
12.5EVO-plant
12.6HHV-plant
12.7Development work for HTR-plants using the Brayton cycle
12.8The PNP-test facilities KVK, EVA ¢ò and WKV
12.9Steam generator test facility (INET)
12.10High pressure channel
12.11ADI test facility
12.12Depressurization experiments
12.13AVA-test facility
12.14Experiments on behavior of special components in helium atmosphere
References
13Experiences with combined processes
13.1Overview
13.2Some aspects of refinery technology
13.3Methanation plants
13.3.1General overview
13.3.2Mass-and energy balance of the methanation process
13.3.3Kinetics of the methanation process
13.3.4Tests in the ADAM ¢ñ/EVA ¢ñ-facility
13.3.5Large technical facility for steam reforming and methanation(EVA ¢ò/ADAM ¢ò-facility)
13.3.6Technical aspects of methanation plants
13.4Hydrogasification of coal
13.4.1Overview on the principle concept
13.4.2Thermodynamic equilibria and kinetics
13.4.3Some technical parameter of gasifiers
13.4.4Semiª²technical plant for hydrogasification
13.4.5Technical plant for hydrogasification
13.4.6Technical experiences with gasification technologies
13.5Synthesis of methanol
13.5.1Overview
13.5.2Technical aspects of conversion of synthesis gas to methanol
13.5.3Some aspects of process engineering of the methanol synthesis
13.5.4Test facility for synthesis of energy alcohols
13.5.5Further developments in the field of methanol-synthesis
13.5.6Production of hydrogen or synthesis gases by methanol conversion process,use for fuel cells
13.5.7Production of proteins from methanol
13.6Fischer-Tropsch-synthesis
13.6.1Overview
13.6.2Technical aspects of the synthesis
References
14Environmental aspects
14.1Overview over emissions from plants using fossil fuels
14.2Aspects of the CO2-question
14.2.1CO2-production, emission and the climate question
14.2.2Technical aspects of CO2-waste management
14.3Environmental aspects of use of nuclear energy in the energy economy
14.3.1Radiological consequences of released radioactive substances
14.3.2Valuation of extreme accidents in light water reactors
14.3.3Safety concepts in the field of nuclear waste management
14.3.4New safety concepts for future high temperature reactors for process heat
applications
14.3.5Some aspects of nuclear waste management for VHTR-systems
14.4Some general aspects of sustainability
References
15Economic conditions
15.1General remarks
15.2Methods of cost valuation
15.2.1Overview
15.2.2Comparison of production costs
15.2.3Comparison of economic success
15.2.4Comparison of rentability
15.2.5Calculation of the amortization conditions
15.2.6Capital value method
15.2.7Method of annuity
15.2.8Method of life cycle costs
15.3Estimation of costs of nuclear process heat
15.3.1Overview
15.3.2Nuclear fuel cycle costs
15.3.3Investment costs
15.3.4Estimation of total costs of nuclear process heat from a future VHTR-system
15.3.5Special aspects of cost estimations
15.4Cost estimations for the production of low temperature heat by cogeneration processes
15.5Cost estimation for the hydrogen production by electrolysis
15.6Costs of high temperature processes for conversion of fossil fuels
15.6.1Overview on fuel characteristic
15.6.2Production costs of hydrogen in steam reforming processes
15.6.3Production costs of gas from coal
15.6.4Production of gasoline from coal
15.6.5Cost estimations for oil production from oil shale and oil sand
15.7Cost estimates for hydrogen production by thermo-chemical cycles
15.8External costs
15.9Some aspects of optimization of processes and plants
15.9.1Overview on some examples
15.9.2Optimal life steam temperature delivered for steam turbine processes
15.9.3Optimization of the conditions of temperatures, pressure and H2O/CH4-ratio
during the steam reforming process
15.9.4Optimal layout of the fluidized bed for steam gasification of coal
15.9.5Optimization of the waste heat recovery
15.9.6Optimal use of Uranium in fuel cycles
15.9.7Optimal duration time of intermediate storage of spent fuel elements
15.9.8Optimization of the reduction of emissions of dangerous substances from plants
15.10General procedure to evaluate the economic conditions of processes
References
16Further possibilities for use of process heat technologies
16.1Overview on possibilities and conditions
16.2Helium cooled fast breeder reactors
16.3Transmutation plants with heat production
16.4Fusion reactors applied for process heat production
16.5High temperature heat from solar tower plants
16.6Solar farm plants as heat source
References
Appendix 1Acknowledge to the development of nuclear process heat in Germany
Appendix 2List of names of contributors to the development of nuclear process heat in Germany
