目录
1Device Physics
1.1Semiconductors
1.1.1Generation and Recombination
1.1.2Extrinsic Semiconductors
1.1.3Diffusion and Drift
1.2PN Junctions
1.2.1Depletion Regions
1.2.2PN Diodes
1.2.3Zener Diodes
1.2.4Schottky Diodes
1.2.5Ohmic Contacts
1.3Bipolar Transistors
1.3.1Beta
1.3.2ⅠⅤ Characteristics
1.4MOS Transistors
1.4.1Threshold Voltage
1.4.2ⅠⅤ Characteristics
1.5JFET Transistors
1.6Summary
2Semiconductor Fabrication
2.1Silicon Manufacture
2.1.1Crystal Growth
2.1.2Wafer Manufacture
2.1.3The Crystal Structure of Silicon
2.2Patterning
2.2.1Photoresists
2.2.2Exposure
2.2.3Development
2.3Oxide Growth and Removal
2.3.1Oxide Growth and Deposition
2.3.2Oxide Removal
2.3.3Other Effects of Oxide Growth and Removal
2.3.4Local Oxidation of Silicon (LOCOS)
2.4Diffusion and Ion Implantation
2.4.1Diffusion
2.4.2Other Effects of Diffusion
2.4.3Ion Implantation
2.5Silicon Deposition and Etching
2.5.1Epitaxy
2.5.2Poly Deposition
2.5.3Silicon etching
2.6Isolation
2.6.1Junction Isolation
2.6.2Dielectric Isolation
2.6.3Wafer Bonding
2.7Interconnection
2.7.1Aluminum
2.7.2Refractory Barrier Metal
2.7.3Silicidation
2.7.4Tungsten Plugs
2.7.5Dielectrics
2.7.6Copper
2.8Assembly
2.8.1Mount and Bond
2.8.2Packaging
2.9Summary
3Layout
3.1Layout Editors
3.1.1Coordinates
3.1.2The Grid
3.1.3Shapes
3.1.4Hierarchy
3.1.5Interchange File Formats
3.2Design Rules
3.2.1Geometric Operations
3.2.2Rule Checks
3.2.3Design Rule Construction
3.3Pattern Generation
3.3.1Optical Pattern Generation
3.3.2Advances in Photolithography
3.3.3MEBES
3.3.4Optical Proximity Correction
3.4Summary
4Representative Processes
4.1Standard Bipolar
4.1.1Essential Features
4.1.2Fabrication Sequence
4.1.3Available Devices
4.1.4Process Extensions
4.2PolyGate CMOS
4.2.1Essential Features
4.2.2Fabrication Sequence
4.2.3Available Devices
4.2.4Process Extensions
4.3Analog BiCMOS
4.3.1Essential Features
4.3.2Fabrication Sequence
4.3.3Available Devices
4.3.4Process Extensions
4.4Summary
5Failure Mechanisms
5.1Electrical Overstress
5.1.1SelfHeating
5.1.2Filamentation
5.1.3Electromigration
5.1.4Timedependent Dielectric Breakdown
5.1.5Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
5.1.6The Antenna Effect
5.2Contamination
5.2.1Dry Corrosion
5.2.2Mobile Ion Contamination
5.3Surface Effects
5.3.1HotCarrier Injection in MOS Transistors
5.3.2Zener Walkout and Walkback
5.3.3AvalancheInduced Beta Degradation
5.3.4NegativeBias Temperature Instability
5.3.5Parasitic Channels and Charge Spreading
5.3.6Substrate Influence
5.4Minority Carrier Injection
5.4.1Minority Carrier Injection
5.4.2Latchup
5.4.3Debiasing
5.4.4Guard Rings
5.5Summary
6Resistors
6.1Resistivity and Sheet Resistance
6.2Resistor Layout
6.3Resistor Variability
6.3.1Process Variation
6.3.2Temperature Variation
6.3.3Nonlinearity and Conductivity Modulation
6.3.4Contact Resistance
6.3.5Hydrogenation and Dehydrogenation
6.4Resistor Parasitics
6.5Comparison of Available Resistors
6.5.1Base Resistors
6.5.2Emitter Resistors
6.5.3Base Pinch Resistors
6.5.4HighSheet Resistors
6.5.5Epi Pinch Resistors
6.5.6Metal Resistors
6.5.7Poly Resistors
6.5.8NSD and PSD Resistors
6.5.9NWell Resistors
6.5.10ThinFilm Resistors
6.5.11Summary of Available Resistor Types
6.6Adjusting Resistor Values
6.6.1Tweaking Resistors
6.6.2Trimming Resistors
6.7Summary
7Capacitors and Inductors
7.1Capacitance
7.1.1Capacitor Variability
7.1.2Capacitor Parasitics
7.1.3Comparison of Available Capacitors
7.2Inductance
7.2.1Inductor Parasitics
7.2.2Inductor Construction
7.3Summary
8Matching of Resistors and Capacitors
8.1Mismatch
8.2Causes of Mismatch
8.2.1Random Variation
8.2.2Process Biases
8.2.3Proximity Effects
8.2.4Interconnection Parasitics
8.2.5NBL Shadow
8.2.6Hydrogenation
8.2.7Temperature
8.2.8Mechanical Stress and Package Shift
8.2.9Electric Fields
8.3Rules for Device Matching
8.3.1Rules for Resistor Matching
8.3.2Rules for Capacitor Matching
8.4Summary
9Bipolar Transistors
9.1Bipolar Transistor Operation
9.1.1Beta Variation
9.1.2Avalanche Breakdown
9.1.3Saturation in NPN Transistors
9.1.4Saturation in Lateral PNP Transistors
9.2Standard Bipolar SmallSignal Transistors
9.2.1The Standard Bipolar Vertical NPN Transistor
9.2.2The Standard Bipolar Substrate PNP Transistor
9.2.3The Standard Bipolar Lateral PNP Transistor
9.2.4HighVoltage Bipolar Transistors
9.2.5SuperBeta NPN Transistors
9.3CMOS and BiCMOS SmallSignal Bipolar
Transistors
9.3.1Analog CMOS PNP Transistors
9.3.2ShallowWell Transistors
9.3.3Analog BiCMOS NPN Transistors
9.3.4Analog BiCMOS Lateral PNP Transistors
9.3.5Fast Bipolar Transistors
9.4Summary
10Applications of Bipolar Transistors
10.1Power Bipolar Transistors
10.1.1Failure Mechanisms of Bipolar Power
Transistors
10.1.2Standard Bipolar Power NPN Transistors
10.1.3Standard Bipolar Power PNP Transistors
10.1.4Advanced Power Bipolar Transistors
10.1.5Saturation Detection and Limiting
10.2Matching Bipolar Transistors
10.2.1Random Variations
10.2.2Emitter Degeneration
10.2.3Thermal Gradients
10.2.4Mechanical Stress
10.2.5NBL Shadow
10.2.6Other Causes of Systematic Mismatch in Bipolar Transistors
10.3Rules for Bipolar Transistor Matching
10.3.1Rules for Matching Vertical Transistors
10.3.2Rules for Matching Lateral Transistors
10.4Summary
11Diodes
11.1Diodes in Standard Bipolar
11.1.1DiodeConnected Transistors
11.1.2Zener Diodes
11.1.3Schottky Diodes
11.1.4BaseCollector Power Diodes
11.2Diodes in CMOS and BiCMOS Processes
11.2.1CMOS Junction Diodes
11.2.2Analog BiCMOS Junction Diodes
11.2.3CMOS and Analog BiCMOS Schottky Diodes
11.3Matching Diodes
11.3.1Matching PN Junction Diodes
11.3.2Matching Zener Diodes
11.3.3Matching Schottky Diodes
11.3.4Rules for Matching Diodes
11.4Summary
12FieldEffect Transistors
12.1MOS Transistor Operation
12.1.1Device Transconductance
12.1.2Threshold Voltage
12.1.3Additional Modeling Considerations
12.1.4Breakdown in MOS Transistors
12.2Constructing CMOS Transistors
12.2.1Coding the MOS Transistor
12.2.2Wells and Tanks
12.2.3Channel Stop Implants
12.2.4Threshold Adjust Implants
12.2.5Multiple Gate Oxides
12.2.6Scaling the Transistor
12.2.7Drain Engineering of CMOS Transistors
12.2.8Variant CMOS Layouts
12.2.9Backgate Contacts
12.3Nonvolatile Memory
12.3.1The FloatingGate Transistor
12.3.2SinglePoly EPROM
12.3.3SinglePoly EEPROM
12.4The JFET Transistor
12.4.1Modeling the JFET
12.4.2JFET Construction
12.5Summary
13Applications of MOS Transistors
13.1Power MOS Transistors
13.1.1Conduction Losses
13.1.2Switching Losses
13.1.3Safe Operating Area
13.1.4CMOS Power Transistors
13.1.5HighVoltage Transistors
13.2Matching MOS Transistors
13.2.1Effects of Geometry upon Matching
13.2.2Diffusion, Implantation, Etch, and Trench
Effects
13.2.3BiasDependent Mismatches
13.2.4Hydrogenation
13.2.5Gradients
13.2.6CommonCentroid Layout of MOS Transistors
13.3Rules for MOS Transistor Matching
13.4Summary
14Special Topics
14.1Merged Devices
14.1.1Problematic Device Mergers
14.1.2Successful Device Mergers
14.1.3LowRisk Device Mergers
14.1.4MediumRisk Device Mergers
14.1.5Devising New Device Mergers
14.2MinorityCarrier Guard Rings
14.2.1Standard Bipolar Electron Guard Rings
14.2.2Standard Bipolar Hole Guard Rings
14.2.3CMOS Electron Guard Rings
14.2.4CMOS Hole Guard Rings
14.2.5BiCMOS Electron Guard Rings
14.2.6BiCMOS Hole Guard Rings
14.3SingleLevel Interconnection
14.3.1Mock Layouts
14.3.2Techniques for Crossing Leads
14.3.3Types of Tunnels
14.4ESD Protection
14.4.1Primary ESD Protection
14.4.2Secondary ESD Protection
14.4.3DieLevel ESD Protection Strategies
14.5Summary
15Assembling the Die
15.1Die Area Estimation
15.1.1Partitioning and Populating the Database
15.1.2Computing Cell Areas
15.1.3Estimating Die Areas
15.1.4Cost Estimation
15.2Floorplanning
15.3Constructing the Padring
15.3.1Scribe Streets
15.3.2Scribe Seals and Ground Rings
15.3.3Bondpads
15.3.4Solder Bumps and Copper Pillars
15.4Manual TopLevel Interconnection
15.4.1Vias
15.4.2Routing Pitches and Grids
15.4.3Channel Routing
15.4.4Special Routing Techniques
15.5Final Layout Checklist
15.6Conclusion
Appendices
ATable of Acronyms Used in the Text
BThe Miller Indices of a Cubic Crystal
CSample Layout Rules
DMathematical Derivations
EThe Rule of OneThird
第1章器件物理
1.1半导体
1.1.1产生与复合
1.1.2非本征半导体
1.1.3扩散与漂移
1.2PN结
1.2.1耗尽区
1.2.2PN结二极管
1.2.3齐纳二极管
1.2.4肖特基二极管
1.2.5欧姆接触
1.3双极型晶体管
1.3.1电流放大系数(β)
1.3.2伏安特性
1.4MOS晶体管
1.4.1阈值电压
1.4.2伏安特性
1.5JFET晶体管
1.6总结
第2章半导体制造
2.1硅的制备
2.1.1晶体生长
2.1.2晶圆制造
2.1.3硅的晶体结构
2.2图形化工艺
2.2.1光刻胶
2.2.2曝光
2.2.3显影
2.3氧化层生长与去除
2.3.1氧化层生长与淀积
2.3.2氧化层去除
2.3.3氧化层生长与去除的其他影响
2.3.4硅的局部氧化(LOCOS)
2.4扩散与离子注入
2.4.1扩散
2.4.2扩散的其他影响
2.4.3离子注入
2.5硅的淀积与刻蚀
2.5.1外延
2.5.2多晶硅淀积
2.5.3硅刻蚀
2.6隔离技术
2.6.1结隔离
2.6.2介质隔离
2.6.3晶圆键合
2.7互连技术
2.7.1铝
2.7.2难熔阻挡金属
2.7.3硅化
2.7.4钨塞
2.7.5介质材料
2.7.6铜
2.8组装工艺
2.8.1装片与键合
2.8.2封装
2.9总结
第3章版图设计
3.1版图编辑器
3.1.1坐标
3.1.2网格
3.1.3图形
3.1.4层次结构
3.1.5交换文件格式
3.2设计规则
3.2.1几何运算
3.2.2规则检查
3.2.3设计规则制定
3.3图形生成
3.3.1光学图形生成
3.3.2光刻技术的进展
3.3.3MEBES
3.3.4光学邻近校正
3.4总结
第4章典型工艺
4.1标准双极型工艺
4.1.1核心特征
4.1.2制造流程
4.1.3可用器件
4.1.4工艺扩展
4.2多晶硅栅CMOS工艺
4.2.1核心特征
4.2.2制造流程
4.2.3可用器件
4.2.4工艺扩展
4.3模拟BiCMOS工艺
4.3.1核心特征
4.3.2制造流程
4.3.3可用器件
4.3.4工艺扩展
4.4总结
第5章失效机制
5.1电气过应力
5.1.1自热
5.1.2丝状化
5.1.3电迁移
5.1.4时间相关介质击穿
5.1.5静电放电(ESD)
5.1.6天线效应
5.2污染
5.2.1干腐蚀
5.2.2可动离子污染
5.3表面效应
5.3.1MOS晶体管中的热载流子注入
5.3.2齐纳电压漂移与回漂
5.3.3雪崩诱导电流放大系数退化
5.3.4负偏压温度不稳定性
5.3.5寄生沟道与电荷扩散
5.3.6衬底影响
5.4少数载流子注入
5.4.1基本概念
5.4.2闩锁效应
5.4.3去偏置
5.4.4保护环
5.5总结
第6章电阻
6.1电阻率与薄层电阻
6.2电阻版图
6.3电阻的变异性
6.3.1工艺变异
6.3.2温度变异
6.3.3非线性与电导调制
6.3.4接触电阻
6.3.5氢化与脱氢
6.4电阻的寄生效应
6.5各类电阻的比较
6.5.1基区电阻
6.5.2发射区电阻
6.5.3基区夹断电阻
6.5.4高薄层电阻
6.5.5外延层夹断电阻
6.5.6金属电阻
6.5.7多晶硅电阻
6.5.8NSD与PSD电阻
6.5.9N阱电阻
6.5.10薄膜电阻
6.5.11各类电阻总结
6.6电阻值调整
6.6.1微调电阻
6.6.2修调电阻
6.7总结
第7章电容与电感
7.1电容
7.1.1电容的变异性
7.1.2电容的寄生效应
7.1.3各类电容的比较
7.2电感
7.2.1电感的寄生效应
7.2.2电感的结构
7.3总结
第8章电阻与电容的匹配
8.1失配
8.2失配的成因
8.2.1随机变异
8.2.2工艺偏差
8.2.3邻近效应
8.2.4互连寄生效应
8.2.5N型埋层阴影效应
8.2.6氢化
8.2.7温度
8.2.8热电效应
8.2.9电场
8.3器件匹配规则
8.3.1电阻匹配规则
8.3.2电容匹配规则
8.4总结
第9章双极型晶体管
9.1 双极型晶体管的工作原理
9.1.1电流放大系数(β)变异
9.1.2雪崩击穿
9.1.3NPN晶体管的饱和
9.1.4横向PNP晶体管的饱和
9.2标准双极型小信号晶体管
9.2.1标准双极型纵向NPN晶体管
9.2.2标准双极型衬底PNP晶体管
9.2.3标准双极型横向PNP晶体管
9.2.4高压双极型晶体管
9.2.5超β NPN晶体管
9.3CMOS与BiCMOS小信号双极型
晶体管
9.3.1模拟CMOS PNP晶体管
9.3.2浅阱晶体管
9.3.3模拟BiCMOS NPN晶体管
9.3.4模拟BiCMOS横向PNP晶体管
9.3.5高速双极型晶体管
9.4总结
第10章双极型晶体管的应用
10.1功率双极型晶体管
10.1.1功率双极型晶体管的失效机制
10.1.2标准功率双极型NPN晶体管
10.1.3标准功率双极PNP晶体管
10.1.4先进功率双极型晶体管
10.1.5饱和检测与限制
10.2双极型晶体管的匹配
10.2.1随机变异
10.2.2发射区退化
10.2.3热梯度
10.2.4机械应力
10.2.5N型埋层阴影效应
10.2.6双极型晶体管系统性失配的
其他成因
10.3双极型晶体管匹配规则
10.3.1纵向晶体管匹配规则
10.3.2横向晶体管匹配规则
10.4总结
第11章二极管
11.1标准双极工艺中的二极管
11.1.1二极管连接的晶体管
11.1.2齐纳二极管
11.1.3肖特基二极管
11.1.4基极集电极功率二极管
11.2CMOS与BiCMOS工艺中的二极管
11.2.1CMOS结二极管
11.2.2模拟BiCMOS结二极管
11.2.3CMOS与模拟BiCMOS肖特基二极管
11.3二极管的匹配
11.3.1PN结二极管的匹配
11.3.2齐纳二极管的匹配
11.3.3肖特基二极管的匹配
11.3.4二极管匹配规则
11.4总结
第12章场效应晶体管
12.1MOS晶体管的工作原理
12.1.1器件跨导
12.1.2阈值电压
12.1.3其他建模考虑因素
12.1.4MOS晶体管的击穿
12.2CMOS晶体管的结构
12.2.1MOS晶体管的编码
12.2.2阱与槽
12.2.3沟道阻挡注入
12.2.4阈值调整注入
12.2.5多栅氧化层
12.2.6晶体管缩放
12.2.7CMOS晶体管的漏区工程
12.2.8变异CMOS版图
12.2.9背栅接触
12.3非易失性存储器
12.3.1浮栅晶体管
12.3.2单多晶硅EPROM
12.3.3单多晶硅EEPROM
12.4JFET晶体管
12.4.1JFET的建模
12.4.2JFET的结构
12.5总结
第13章MOS晶体管的应用
13.1功率MOS晶体管
13.1.1导通损耗
13.1.2开关损耗
13.1.3安全工作区
13.1.4CMOS功率晶体管
13.1.5高压晶体管
13.2MOS晶体管的匹配
13.2.1几何形状对匹配的影响
13.2.2扩散、注入、刻蚀与沟槽
效应
13.2.3偏置相关失配
13.2.4氢化
13.2.5梯度
13.2.6MOS晶体管的共重心版图
13.3MOS晶体管匹配规则
13.4总结
第14章专题内容
14.1合并器件
14.1.1有问题的器件合并
14.1.2成功的器件合并
14.1.3低风险器件合并
14.1.4中风险器件合并
14.1.5新型器件合并的设计
14.2少数载流子保护环
14.2.1标准双极电子保护环
14.2.2标准双极空穴保护环
14.2.3CMOS电子保护环
14.2.4CMOS空穴保护环
14.2.5BiCMOS电子保护环
14.2.6BiCMOS空穴保护环
14.3单层互连
14.3.1模拟版图
14.3.2引线交叉技术
14.3.3沟槽类型
14.4ESD保护
14.4.1初级ESD保护
14.4.2次级ESD保护
14.4.3芯片级ESD保护策略
14.5总结
第15章芯片组装
15.1芯片面积估算
15.1.1数据库分区与填充
15.1.2单元面积计算
15.1.3芯片面积估算
15.1.4成本估算
15.2布局规划
15.3焊盘环设计
15.3.1划片道
15.3.2划片密封环与接地环
15.3.3焊盘
15.3.4焊球与铜柱
15.4顶层手动互连
15.4.1过孔
15.4.2布线间距与网格
15.4.3通道布线
15.4.4特殊布线技术
15.5最终版图检查清单
15.6结论
附录
A文中使用的缩写词表
B立方晶体的米勒指数
C版图规则示例
D数学推导
E三分之一法则
